Disability severity and risk of new or recurrent intimate partner violence - Evidence from a cohort study in rural Pakistan.

BACKGROUND: People with disabilities are more likely to experience intimate partner violence (IPV) than those without. Most research examining the relationship between disability and IPV, however, is cross-sectional and approaches disability as a binary variable. This relationship is also important to consider in a South Asian context, where it may be affected by cultural norms surrounding IPV, and resources for people with disabilities. OBJECTIVE: To estimate the degree to which disability severity increases the risk of subsequent IPV among a cohort of mothers living in rural Pakistan. METHODS: Mothers from the Bachpan study (N = 869) with data for at least two consecutive waves between 1-, 2-, 3-, and 6-years postpartum were included in this study. Modified Poisson regression models were used to estimate the relationship between disability level in the preceding wave and psychological, physical, and sexual IPV in the following wave. RESULTS: For psychological IPV, the risk ratio (RR) for medium severity was 1.27 (95 % CI: 1.10, 1.46) and the RR for high severity was 1.23 (95 % CI: 1.02, 1.48), relative to low severity. Physical IPV had a medium severity RR of 1.44 (95 % CI: 1.00, 2.06) and high severity RR of 1.60 (95 % CI: 1.02, 2.53). For sexual IPV, the medium severity RR was 1.35 (95 % CI: 1.05, 1.75) and the high severity RR was 1.53 (95 % CI: 1.11, 2.10). CONCLUSIONS: This study supports that, in a low-income, rural South Asian context, mothers with disabilities are particularly susceptible to future psychological, physical, and sexual IPV.

Childhood parental bonding and depression in adulthood: A study of mothers in rural Pakistan.

BACKGROUND: Parent-child relationship quality can have long-term impacts on child mental health into adulthood. The impact of parental behaviors on the future mental health of children has been understudied in South Asia, where parenting approaches differ from the dominant western approaches often represented in the literature. METHODS: Mothers in rural Pakistan (N = 828) reported on their own mothers' parenting behaviors using the Parental Bonding Instrument (PBI) and were assessed for depression using the Structured Clinical Interview for DSM Disorders (SCID). The PBI includes scales for warmth (care scale) and over-control (protection scale), as well as subscales for behavioral control and psychological control. We used structural equation modeling to test the associations between depression and all PBI scales/subscales. RESULTS: Increased parental care was associated with lower probability of depression (B = -0.19, SE = 0.09). Parental protection was associated with higher probability of depression (B = 0.25, SE = 0.11). Among the protection subscales, behavioral control was associated with increased risk of depression (B = 0.24, 95 % SE = 0.11) and psychological control was associated with decreased risk of depression (B = -0.28, SE = 0.12). LIMITATIONS: This cross-sectional study used retrospective self-reports of parenting experiences. Participants only reported on their mothers, not fathers or other caregivers. CONCLUSIONS: In a rural Pakistani sample, maternal warmth was protective against adulthood depression. The association between maternal control and depression varied based on the type of control (behavioral or psychological), emphasizing the importance of nuanced measures of parental control in this context.

Racial And Ethnic Inequities In Postpartum Depressive Symptoms, Diagnosis, And Care In 7 US Jurisdictions.

Understanding whether racial and ethnic inequities exist along the postpartum mental health care continuum is vital because inequitable identification of depression can lead to inequitable referral to and receipt of care. We aimed to expand on existing cross-sectional and single-state data documenting potential racial and ethnic disparities in postpartum depression care. Using early (from two to six months) and late (from twelve to fourteen months) postpartum survey data from seven US jurisdictions, we documented patterns of early postpartum depressive symptoms, perinatal mood and anxiety disorder (PMAD) diagnosis, and receipt of postpartum mental health care overall and by racial and ethnic identity. Of 4,542 people who delivered live births in 2020, 11.8 percent reported early postpartum depressive symptoms. Among the sample with these symptoms, only 25.4 percent reported receiving a PMAD diagnosis, and 52.8 percent reported receiving some form of postpartum mental health care. There were no significant differences in diagnosis by race and ethnicity. Respondents identifying as Asian; Native Hawaiian or Pacific Islander; Southwest Asian, Middle Eastern, or North African; Hispanic; and non-Hispanic Black were significantly less likely than non-Hispanic White respondents to receive mental health care, demonstrating stark inequities in the management of postpartum depressive symptoms. Policies mandating and reimbursing universal postpartum depression screening, facilitating connection to care, reducing insurance coverage gaps, and enhancing clinician training in culturally responsive care may promote equitable postpartum mental health care.

Residential segregation and prenatal depression in a non-Hispanic Black and Hispanic cohort in North Carolina.

PURPOSE: Investigate residential segregation and prenatal depression in a non-Hispanic (NH) Black and Hispanic North Carolina pregnancy cohort. METHODS: Demographics, prenatal depression (Center for Epidemiological Studies Depression scale ≥16), and residence from the 2006-2009 Newborn Epigenetic Survey were linked to Census-tract levels of racial and economic segregation (Index of Concentration at the Extremes) from the American Community Survey 2005-2009 5-year estimates. Adjusted prevalence ratios (aPR) for prenatal depression compared living in Index of Concentration at the Extremes tertiles 1 and 2 (higher proportion NH Black or Hispanic and/or low income) to 3 (higher proportion NH white and/or high-income), accounting for neighborhood clustering, age, education, employment, parity, and marital status. RESULTS: Among the 773 survey participants (482 NH Black and 291 Hispanic), 35.7% and 27.2% of NH Black and Hispanic participants had prenatal depression, respectively. For NH Black participants, depression prevalence was 17% lower for tertile 1 versus 3 for the NH Black/white (aPR=0.83; 95% CI=0.62-1.10), low/high income (aPR=0.83; 95% CI=0.62-1.11), and low-income NH Black/high-income NH white (aPR=0.82; 95% CI=0.61-1.09) measures. For Hispanic participants, estimates were weaker in the opposite direction for the Hispanic/NH white (aPR=1.02; 95% CI=0.71-1.47), low/high income (aPr=1.14; (95% CI=0.76-1.69), and low-income Hispanic/high-income NH white (aPR=1.12; 95% CI=0.78-1.60) measures. CONCLUSIONS: Residential segregation's impact on prenatal depression may differ by race/ethnicity and level of segregation, but findings are imprecise due to small sample sizes. Longitudinal research spanning greater geographic areas is needed.

Mother-in-law childcare and perinatal depression in rural Pakistan.

BACKGROUND: Mothers-in-law often provide key childcare support to daughters-in-law during the perinatal period that may enhance maternal mental health. Yet, poor mother-in-law/daughter-in-law relationships may be associated with maternal depression. The extent to which mother-in-law childcare involvement affects perinatal depression may differ across contexts of family conflict. OBJECTIVE: We explored the relationship between mother-in-law childcare and daughter-in-law perinatal depression in rural Pakistan across contexts of family conflict. METHODS: Data on 783 women came from the Bachpan Cohort, a birth cohort in Pakistan. Maternally-reported mother-in-law childcare was assessed at 3 and 12 months postpartum using a 24-h recall and categorized into no, low, and high involvement. Major depression was captured at 3 and 12 months using the Structured Clinical Interview for Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders IV. Family conflict was captured using three items from the Life Events Checklist. Log-Poisson models were used to estimate cross-sectional associations between mother-in-law childcare and perinatal depression, stratified by family conflict. RESULTS: Mother-in-law childcare was common in the first year postpartum. The association between mother-in-law childcare and perinatal depression differed by the presence of family conflict and postpartum timing. At 3 months postpartum, low and high mother-in-law childcare (vs no involvement) were associated with a lower prevalence of depression regardless of family conflict. At 12 months postpartum, among families with no conflict, low mother-in-law childcare (vs no involvement) was associated with lower perinatal depression; however, among families with conflict, high mother-in-law childcare was associated with increased perinatal depression. CONCLUSION: Our findings highlight the complexities of associations between mother-in-law childcare support and perinatal depression in the first year after birth. Mother-in-law childcare in the immediate postpartum period was beneficial for mothers. Understanding the source, amount, timing, and context of social support is necessary to inform research and interventions that aim to improve maternal mental health.

Stressful life events, intimate partner violence, and perceived stress in the postpartum period: longitudinal findings in rural Pakistan.

PURPOSE: While the association between intimate partner violence (IPV) and stress is well documented, the directionality of this relationship is unclear. We use an adjusted longitudinal study design to better understand if stressful life events in the home precipitate or exacerbate intimate partner violence (IPV) and if experiences of IPV, in turn, increase levels of perceived stress. METHODS: Longitudinal data were collected among married women in rural Pakistan at 12 and 24 months postpartum (N = 815). Adjusted Poisson and linear regression models were used to examine stressful life events, past year IPV and severity (number and frequency of violent acts), and perceived stress (Cohen Perceived Stress Scale). RESULTS: At 12 months postpartum, the prevalence of past year physical, psychological, and sexual IPV was 8.5%, 25.7%, and 25.1%, respectively, with 42.6% experiencing any IPV. After adjustment, stressful life events were associated with a subsequent increased likelihood of all IPV types and increased severity of all but physical IPV. Any past year IPV (versus none) and greater IPV severity were associated with 3.43 (95% CI 2.33-4.52) and 2.57 (95% CI 1.87-3.27) point subsequent increases in perceived stress. Physical, psychological, and sexual IPV and their respective severities were all independently associated with increased perceived stress. CONCLUSIONS: Among postpartum women in Pakistan, stressful life events increase the likelihood of IPV and, in turn, experiences of IPV increase stress levels. Support to families undergoing stressful circumstances may be critical to reducing women's IPV exposure and resulting elevated stress.

Social support and intimate partner violence in rural Pakistan: A longitudinal investigation of the bi-directional relationship.

A large body of cross-sectional evidence finds strong and consistent associations between social support and intimate partner violence (IPV). However, the directionality of this relationship has not been firmly established due to a dearth of longitudinal evidence. Using cohort study data collected over a 3 year period from 945 women in rural Pakistan, we investigated the longitudinal relationship between IPV and social support. Friend and family social support was measured with the Multidimensional Perceived Social Support Scale, and IPV was measured with questions adopted from the World Health Organization's Violence Against Women Instrument, which was used to construct a measure of IPV severity. We estimated longitudinal associations in linear regression models that controlled for women's educational level, age at marriage, age, household composition, household assets, depressive symptoms, and Adverse Childhood Experiences. We found evidence of a bi-directional, mutually re-enforcing relationship that showed unique associations by type of social support. Specifically, we found that high social support from family, though not friends, decreased IPV severity 1 year later, and that higher IPV severity led to reductions in both friend and family social support 1 year later. Results suggest that interventions involving family members could be especially effective at reducing IPV in this context, and - given that low social support leads to many adverse health outcomes - results suggest that IPV can result in secondary harms due to diminished social support. In summary, our study confirms a bi-directional relationship between IPV and social support and suggests that IPV interventions that integrate social support may be especially effective at reducing IPV and mitigating secondary harms.

Medicaid expansion in Oregon and postpartum healthcare among people with and without prenatal substance use disorder.

Background: People with a maternal substance use disorder (SUD) may experience a lack of access to necessary healthcare and more specifically, postpartum healthcare. It is not known whether increased insurance coverage introduced by Medicaid expansion has improved postpartum healthcare utilization among this population. Methods: Oregon 2008-2016 birth certificates and Medicaid claims were used to examine whether continuous insurance enrollment and postpartum healthcare utilization increased post-Medicaid expansion in a population with and without SUD (n = 9,337). International Classification of Diseases codes were used to identify deliveries, SUD, and postpartum healthcare. Univariable and multivariable generalized linear regression with standard errors clustered by individual were used to estimate the association between Medicaid expansion and postpartum healthcare utilization, stratified by maternal SUD. Results: Among the 10.3% with SUD, expansion was not associated with increased continuous enrollment or postpartum healthcare utilization. Among those without SUD, post-expansion deliveries were associated with increased continuous enrollment (+105.0 days; 95% CI=96.9-113.2), total (+4.4; 95% CI=2.9-6.0), postpartum (+0.3; 95% CI=0.2-0.4), inpatient (+0.9; 95% CI=0.7-1.1), outpatient (+2.3; 95% CI=1.4-3.3), office (+0.9; 95% CI=0.2-1.6), and emergency department (+0.3; 95% CI=0.1-0.5) visits. Among deliveries to postpartum people with SUD, 27.2% had opioid use disorder (OUD); expansion was associated with increased OUD medication use (12.0% vs 18.3%) and number of fills (6.7 vs 16.6). Conclusions: Medicaid expansion in Oregon was only associated with increased Medicaid-financed healthcare utilization for postpartum people without SUD, with the exception of those with OUD, demonstrating the need for assessing various strategies to improve postpartum healthcare utilization.

Preventing Pregnancy-Related Mental Health Deaths: Insights From 14 US Maternal Mortality Review Committees, 2008-17.

Each year approximately 700 people die in the United States from pregnancy-related complications. We describe the characteristics of pregnancy-related deaths due to mental health conditions, including substance use disorders, and identify opportunities for prevention based on recommendations from fourteen state Maternal Mortality Review Committees (MMRCs) from the period 2008-17. Among 421 pregnancy-related deaths with an MMRC-determined underlying cause of death, 11 percent were due to mental health conditions. Pregnancy-related mental health deaths were more likely than deaths from other causes to be determined by an MMRC to be preventable (100 percent versus 64 percent), to occur among non-Hispanic White people (86 percent versus 45 percent), and to occur 43-365 days postpartum (63 percent versus 18 percent). Sixty-three percent of pregnancy-related mental health deaths were by suicide. Nearly three-quarters of people with a pregnancy-related mental health cause of death had a history of depression, and more than two-thirds had past or current substance use. MMRC recommendations can be used to prioritize interventions and can inform strategies to enable screening, care coordination, and continuation of care throughout pregnancy and the year postpartum.

Maternal opioid exposure, neonatal abstinence syndrome, and infant healthcare utilization: A retrospective cohort analysis.

BACKGROUND: We sought to describe healthcare utilization of infants by maternal opioid exposure and neonatal abstinence syndrome (NAS) status. METHODS: A longitudinal cohort of 81,833 maternal-infant dyads were identified from Oregon's 2008-2012 linked birth certificate and Medicaid eligibility and claims data. Chi-square tests compared term infants (≥37 weeks of gestational age) by maternal opioid exposure, defined using International Classification of Diseases, Ninth Revision, Clinical Modification (ICD-9-CM) diagnosis codes or prescription fills, and NAS, defined using ICD-9-CM codes, such that infants were categorized as Opioid+/ NAS+, Opioid+/NAS-, Opioid-/NAS+, and Opioid-/NAS-. Modified Poisson regression was used to calculate adjusted risk ratios (aRR) and 95 % confidence intervals (CI) for healthcare utilization for each infant group compared to Opioid-/NAS- infants. RESULTS: The prevalence of documented maternal opioid exposure was 123.1 per 1000 dyads and NAS incidence was 5.8 per 1000 dyads. Compared to Opioid-/NAS- infants, infants with maternal opioid exposures were more likely to be hospitalized within 4 weeks (Opioid+/ NAS+: [aRR: 4.7; 95 % CI: 4.3-5.1]; Opioid+/ NAS-: [aRR: 3.7; 95 %CI: 3.1-4.5]) and a year after birth (Opioid+/ NAS+: [aRR: 3.7; 95 %CI: 3.4-4.0]; Opioid+/ NAS-: [aRR: 2.8; 95 %CI: 2.3-3.4]). Infants with maternal opioid exposure and/or NAS were more likely than Opioid-/NAS- infants to have ≥2 sick visits and any ED visits in the year after birth. CONCLUSIONS: Infants with NAS and/or maternal opioid exposure had greater healthcare utilization than infants without NAS or opioid exposure. Efforts to mitigate future hospitalization risk and encourage participation in preventative services within the first year of life may improve outcomes.

Characteristics and Risk Factors of Hospitalized and Nonhospitalized COVID-19 Patients, Atlanta, Georgia, USA, March-April 2020.

We compared the characteristics of hospitalized and nonhospitalized patients who had coronavirus disease in Atlanta, Georgia, USA. We found that risk for hospitalization increased with a patient's age and number of concurrent conditions. We also found a potential association between hospitalization and high hemoglobin A1c levels in persons with diabetes.

Postpartum Marijuana Use, Perceptions of Safety, and Breastfeeding Initiation and Duration: An Analysis of PRAMS Data From Seven States, 2017.

BACKGROUND: Little is known about breastfeeding initiation and duration in the context of postpartum marijuana use and safety beliefs. RESEARCH AIMS: (1) To describe characteristics of women who used marijuana postpartum; (2) to evaluate the relationship between postpartum marijuana use and breastfeeding behaviors; and 3) to assess, among women who used marijuana postpartum, how safety perceptions are associated with breastfeeding behaviors. METHODS: Data from the cross-sectional Pregnancy Risk Assessment Monitoring System, a United States national governmental survey, 2017, were analyzed for participants with infants aged ≥ 12 weeks (seven states, unweighted N = 4604). Chi-square tests were used to compare characteristics and counseling for postpartum marijuana use. For participants with postpartum use, adjusted prevalence ratios (aPR) were calculated to evaluate relationships between safety perceptions and breastfeeding initiation and duration. RESULTS: Overall, 5.5% (95% CI [4.6, 6.6]) of participants reported postpartum marijuana use; among these women, 47.2% (CI [37.6, 56.9]) were breastfeeding at the time of the survey. Overall, 25.7% of participants indicated that they had been advised, by their prenatal care provider, against marijuana use while breastfeeding. Breastfeeding initiation or duration did not differ by postpartum marijuana use. Among participants with postpartum use, those who perceived marijuana was safe for breastfeeding women to use were more likely to have breastfed (aPR = 1.22, CI [1.04, 1.43]) and have a breastfeeding duration > 12 weeks (aPR = 1.57, CI [1.08, 2.27]) compared to those who perceived it to be unsafe. CONCLUSIONS: Understanding maternal safety beliefs and provider education about the latest evidence and guidance related to postpartum marijuana use may improve clinical care.

Frequency of cannabis use during pregnancy and adverse infant outcomes, by cigarette smoking status - 8 PRAMS states, 2017.

BACKGROUND: Research on prenatal cannabis use and adverse infant outcomes is inconsistent, and findings vary by frequency of use or cigarette use. We assess (1) the prevalence of high frequency (≥once/week), low frequency (

Postpartum Depressive Symptoms and Screening Opportunities at Health Care Encounters.

Background: The American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists recommends that providers screen women for depression at the postpartum checkup. If this checkup is the only screening opportunity, women who do not attend or whose depressive episode occurs at a different time may not be identified. We evaluated women's encounters with postpartum health care to identify screening opportunities for postpartum depressive symptoms (PDS). Materials and Methods: Pregnancy Risk Assessment Monitoring System (PRAMS) data for 2012-2015 from eight jurisdictions (n = 23,990, representing 1,939,865 women) were used to calculate percentage of women reporting attendance at postpartum checkups, well-child visits, or postpartum home visitation, by presence of PDS. PDS were assessed using a modified two-item Patient Health Questionnaire. Using Modified Poisson regression, adjusted prevalence ratios (aPR) and confidence intervals (95% CI) were calculated to compare health services by PDS, adjusted for sociodemographic characteristics. Results: Almost all women with or without PDS attended a postpartum checkup (85.1% and 91.4%; aPR: 0.96; 95% CI: 0.93-0.99) and their infants attended a well-child visit (97.3% and 98.9%; aPR: 0.99; 95% CI: 0.98-1.00); 13.7% and 10.9% received home visitation (aPR: 1.18; 95% CI: 1.02-1.35). Of women with PDS who missed their postpartum checkup, 13.5% reported infant attendance at well-child visits, and 2.0% received home visitation. Of women with PDS, 98.8%, 86.1%, and 11.2% attended 1, 2, or 3 health services. Conclusion: A large percentage of women with PDS may attend well-child visits or receive home visitation, representing opportunities for depression screening and referral for care.

Association Between State Policies on Improving Opioid Prescribing in 2 States and Opioid Overdose Rates Among Reproductive-aged Women.

BACKGROUND: The opioid overdose epidemic has been declared a public health emergency. Women are more likely than men to be prescribed opioid medications. Some states have adopted policies to improve opioid prescribing, including prescription drug monitoring programs (PDMPs) and pain clinic laws. OBJECTIVE: Among reproductive-aged women, we examined the association of mandatory use laws for PDMPs in Kentucky (concurrent with a pain clinic law) and New York with overdose involving prescription opioids or heroin and opioid use disorder (OUD). STUDY DESIGN, SUBJECTS, AND OUTCOME MEASURES: We conducted interrupted time series analyses estimating outcome changes after policy implementation in Kentucky and New York, compared with geographically close states without these policies (comparison states), using 2010-2014 State Inpatient and State Emergency Department Databases. Outcomes included rates of inpatient discharges and emergency department visits for overdoses involving prescription opioids or heroin and OUD among reproductive-aged women. RESULTS: Relative to comparison states, following Kentucky's policy change, we found an immediate postpolicy decrease and a decreasing trend in the rate of overdoses involving prescription opioids, an immediate postpolicy increase in the rate of overdoses involving heroin, and a decreasing trend in the OUD rate (P<0.01); New York's policy change was not associated with the assessed outcomes. CONCLUSIONS: PDMPs and pain clinic laws, such as those implemented in Kentucky, may be promising strategies to reduce the adverse impacts of high-risk opioid prescribing among reproductive-aged women. As states continue efforts to improve inappropriate opioid prescribing, similar strategies as those adopted in Kentucky merit consideration.

Characteristics of Marijuana Use During Pregnancy - Eight States, Pregnancy Risk Assessment Monitoring System, 2017.

Marijuana is the most commonly used illicit substance under federal law in the United States (1); however, many states have legalized medical and adult nonmedical use. Evidence regarding the safety and health effects of cannabis use during pregnancy is largely inconclusive (2). Potential adverse health effects to exposed infants (e.g., lower birthweight) have been documented (2). To provide population-based estimates of use surrounding pregnancy, identify reasons for and mode of use, and understand characteristics of women who continue versus cease marijuana use during pregnancy, CDC analyzed data from eight states participating in the 2017 Pregnancy Risk Assessment Monitoring System (PRAMS) marijuana supplement. Overall, 9.8% of women self-reported marijuana use before pregnancy, 4.2% during pregnancy, and 5.5% after pregnancy. The most common reasons for use during pregnancy were to relieve stress or anxiety, nausea or vomiting, and pain. Smoking was the most common mode of use. In multivariable models that included age, race/ethnicity, marital status, education, insurance status, parity, trimester of entry into prenatal care, and cigarette and e-cigarette use during pregnancy, women who continued versus ceased marijuana use during pregnancy were more likely to be non-Hispanic white or other race/ethnicity than non-Hispanic black, be unmarried, have ≤12 years of education, and use cigarettes during pregnancy. The American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists (ACOG) and the American Academy of Pediatrics (AAP) recommend refraining from marijuana use during pregnancy and lactation (3,4). Given the increasing number of states legalizing medical and adult nonmedical marijuana use, surveillance of perinatal marijuana use can inform clinical guidance, provider and patient education, and public health programs to support evidence-based approaches to addressing substance use.

Vital Signs: Prescription Opioid Pain Reliever Use During Pregnancy - 34 U.S. Jurisdictions, 2019.

BACKGROUND: Prescription opioid use during pregnancy has been associated with poor outcomes for mothers and infants. Studies using administrative data have estimated that 14%-22% of women filled a prescription for opioids during pregnancy; however, data on self-reported prescription opioid use during pregnancy are limited. METHODS: CDC analyzed 2019 data from the Pregnancy Risk Assessment Monitoring System (PRAMS) survey in 32 jurisdictions and maternal and infant health surveys in two additional jurisdictions not participating in PRAMS to estimate self-reported prescription opioid pain reliever (prescription opioid) use during pregnancy overall and by maternal characteristics among women with a recent live birth. This study describes source of prescription opioids, reasons for use, want or need to cut down or stop use, and receipt of health care provider counseling on how use during pregnancy can affect an infant. RESULTS: An estimated 6.6% of respondents reported prescription opioid use during pregnancy. Among these women, 21.2% reported misuse (a source other than a health care provider or a reason for use other than pain), 27.1% indicated wanting or needing to cut down or stop using, and 68.1% received counseling from a provider on how prescription opioid use during pregnancy could affect an infant. CONCLUSIONS AND IMPLICATIONS FOR PUBLIC HEALTH PRACTICE: Among respondents reporting opioid use during pregnancy, most indicated receiving prescription opioids from a health care provider and using for pain reasons; however, answers from one in five women indicated misuse. Improved screening for opioid misuse and treatment of opioid use disorder in pregnant patients might prevent adverse outcomes. Implementation of public health strategies (e.g., improving state prescription drug monitoring program use and enhancing provider training) can support delivery of evidence-based care for pregnant women.

Characteristics Associated with Hospitalization Among Patients with COVID-19 - Metropolitan Atlanta, Georgia, March-April 2020.

The first reported U.S. case of coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) was detected in January 2020 (1). As of June 15, 2020, approximately 2 million cases and 115,000 COVID-19-associated deaths have been reported in the United States.* Reports of U.S. patients hospitalized with SARS-CoV-2 infection (the virus that causes COVID-19) describe high proportions of older, male, and black persons (2-4). Similarly, when comparing hospitalized patients with catchment area populations or nonhospitalized COVID-19 patients, high proportions have underlying conditions, including diabetes mellitus, hypertension, obesity, cardiovascular disease, chronic kidney disease, or chronic respiratory disease (3,4). For this report, data were abstracted from the medical records of 220 hospitalized and 311 nonhospitalized patients aged ≥18 years with laboratory-confirmed COVID-19 from six acute care hospitals and associated outpatient clinics in metropolitan Atlanta, Georgia. Multivariable analyses were performed to identify patient characteristics associated with hospitalization. The following characteristics were independently associated with hospitalization: age ≥65 years (adjusted odds ratio [aOR] = 3.4), black race (aOR = 3.2), having diabetes mellitus (aOR = 3.1), lack of insurance (aOR = 2.8), male sex (aOR = 2.4), smoking (aOR = 2.3), and obesity (aOR = 1.9). Infection with SARS-CoV-2 can lead to severe outcomes, including death, and measures to protect persons from infection, such as staying at home, social distancing (5), and awareness and management of underlying conditions should be emphasized for those at highest risk for hospitalization with COVID-19. Measures that prevent the spread of infection to others, such as wearing cloth face coverings (6), should be used whenever possible to protect groups at high risk. Potential barriers to the ability to adhere to these measures need to be addressed.