Interneuron diversity in the human dorsal striatum.

Deciphering the striatal interneuron diversity is key to understanding the basal ganglia circuit and to untangling the complex neurological and psychiatric diseases affecting this brain structure. We performed snRNA-seq and spatial transcriptomics of postmortem human caudate nucleus and putamen samples to elucidate the diversity and abundance of interneuron populations and their inherent transcriptional structure in the human dorsal striatum. We propose a comprehensive taxonomy of striatal interneurons with eight main classes and fourteen subclasses, providing their full transcriptomic identity and spatial expression profile as well as additional quantitative FISH validation for specific populations. We have also delineated the correspondence of our taxonomy with previous standardized classifications and shown the main transcriptomic and class abundance differences between caudate nucleus and putamen. Notably, based on key functional genes such as ion channels and synaptic receptors, we found matching known mouse interneuron populations for the most abundant populations, the recently described PTHLH and TAC3 interneurons. Finally, we were able to integrate other published datasets with ours, supporting the generalizability of this harmonized taxonomy.

Tuning of liver circadian transcriptome rhythms by thyroid hormone state in male mice.

Thyroid hormones (THs) are important regulators of systemic energy metabolism. In the liver, they stimulate lipid and cholesterol turnover and increase systemic energy bioavailability. It is still unknown how the TH state interacts with the circadian clock, another important regulator of energy metabolism. We addressed this question using a mouse model of hypothyroidism and performed circadian analyses. Low TH levels decreased locomotor activity, food intake, and body temperature mostly in the active phase. Concurrently, liver transcriptome profiling showed only subtle effects compared to elevated TH conditions. Comparative circadian transcriptome profiling revealed alterations in mesor, amplitude, and phase of transcript levels in the livers of low-TH mice. Genes associated with cholesterol uptake, biosynthesis, and bile acid secretion showed reduced mesor. Increased and decreased cholesterol levels in the serum and liver were identified, respectively. Combining data from low- and high-TH conditions allowed the identification of 516 genes with mesor changes as molecular markers of the liver TH state. We explored these genes and created an expression panel that assesses liver TH state in a time-of-day dependent manner. Our findings suggest that the liver has a low TH action under physiological conditions. Circadian profiling reveals genes as potential markers of liver TH state.

Maternal thyroid hormone receptor ß activation in mice sparks brown fat thermogenesis in the offspring.

It is well established that maternal thyroid hormones play an important role for the developing fetus; however, the consequences of maternal hyperthyroidism for the offspring remain poorly understood. Here we show in mice that maternal 3,3',5-triiodothyronine (T3) treatment during pregnancy leads to improved glucose tolerance in the adult male offspring and hyperactivity of brown adipose tissue (BAT) thermogenesis in both sexes starting early after birth. The activated BAT provides advantages upon cold exposure, reducing the strain on other thermogenic organs like muscle. This maternal BAT programming requires intact maternal thyroid hormone receptor ß (TRß) signaling, as offspring of mothers lacking this receptor display the opposite phenotype. On the molecular level, we identify distinct T3 induced alterations in maternal serum metabolites, including choline, a key metabolite for healthy pregnancy. Taken together, our results connect maternal TRß activation to the fetal programming of a thermoregulatory phenotype in the offspring.

Interneuron diversity in the human dorsal striatum.

Deciphering the striatal interneuron diversity is key to understanding the basal ganglia circuit and to untangle the complex neurological and psychiatric diseases affecting this brain structure. We performed snRNA-seq of postmortem human caudate nucleus and putamen samples to elucidate the diversity and abundance of interneuron populations and their transcriptional structure in the human dorsal striatum. We propose a new taxonomy of striatal interneurons with eight main classes and fourteen subclasses and provide their specific markers and some quantitative FISH validation, particularly for a novel PTHLH-expressing population. For the most abundant populations, PTHLH and TAC3, we found matching known mouse interneuron populations based on key functional genes such as ion channels and synaptic receptors. Remarkably, human TAC3 and mouse Th populations share important similarities including the expression of the neuropeptide tachykinin 3. Finally, we were able to integrate other published datasets supporting the generalizability of this new harmonized taxonomy.

Rewiring of liver diurnal transcriptome rhythms by triiodothyronine (T3) supplementation.

Diurnal (i.e., 24 hr) physiological rhythms depend on transcriptional programs controlled by a set of circadian clock genes/proteins. Systemic factors like humoral and neuronal signals, oscillations in body temperature, and food intake align physiological circadian rhythms with external time. Thyroid hormones (THs) are major regulators of circadian clock target processes such as energy metabolism, but little is known about how fluctuations in TH levels affect the circadian coordination of tissue physiology. In this study, a high triiodothyronine (T3) state was induced in mice by supplementing T3 in the drinking water, which affected body temperature, and oxygen consumption in a time-of-day-dependent manner. A 24-hr transcriptome profiling of liver tissue identified 37 robustly and time independently T3-associated transcripts as potential TH state markers in the liver. Such genes participated in xenobiotic transport, lipid and xenobiotic metabolism. We also identified 10-15% of the liver transcriptome as rhythmic in control and T3 groups, but only 4% of the liver transcriptome (1033 genes) were rhythmic across both conditions - amongst these, several core clock genes. In-depth rhythm analyses showed that most changes in transcript rhythms were related to mesor (50%), followed by amplitude (10%), and phase (10%). Gene set enrichment analysis revealed TH state-dependent reorganization of metabolic processes such as lipid and glucose metabolism. At high T3 levels, we observed weakening or loss of rhythmicity for transcripts associated with glucose and fatty acid metabolism, suggesting increased hepatic energy turnover. In summary, we provide evidence that tonic changes in T3 levels restructure the diurnal liver metabolic transcriptome independent of local molecular circadian clocks.

Many environmental conditions, including light and temperature, vary with a daily rhythm that affects how animals interact with their surroundings. Indeed, most species have developed so-called circadian clocks: internal molecular timers that cycle approximately every 24 hours and regulate many bodily functions, including digestion, energy metabolism and sleep. The energy metabolism of the liver ­ the chemical reactions that occur in the organ to produce energy from nutrients ­ is controlled both by the circadian clock system, and by the hormones produced by a gland in the neck called the thyroid. However, the interaction between these two regulators is poorly understood. To address this question, de Assis, Harder et al. elevated the levels of thyroid hormones in mice by adding these hormones to their drinking water. Studying these mice showed that, although thyroid hormone levels were good indicators of how much energy mice burn in a day, they do not reflect daily fluctuations in metabolic rate faithfully. Additionally, de Assis, Harder et al. showed that elevating T₃, the active form of thyroid hormone, led to a rewiring of the daily rhythms at which genes were turned on and off in the liver, affecting the daily timing of processes including fat and cholesterol metabolism. This occurred without changing the circadian clock of the liver directly. De Assis, Harder et al.'s results indicate that time-of-day critically affects the action of thyroid hormones in the liver. This suggests that patients with hypothyroidism, who produce low levels of thyroid hormones, may benefit from considering time-of-day as a factor in disease diagnosis, therapy and, potentially, prevention. Further data on the rhythmic regulation of thyroid action in humans, including in patients with hypothyroidism, are needed to further develop this approach.

The Tissue Clock Network: Driver and Gatekeeper of Circadian Physiology: Circadian rhythms are integrated outputs of central and peripheral tissue clocks interacting in a complex manner - from drivers to gatekeepers.

In mammals, a network of cellular circadian clocks organizes physiology and behavior along the 24-h day cycle. The traditional hierarchical model of circadian clock organization with a central pacemaker and peripheral slave oscillators has recently been challenged by studies combining tissue-specific mouse mutants with transcriptome analyses. First, a surprisingly small number of tissue rhythms are lost when only local clocks are ablated and, second, transcriptional circadian rhythms appear to be regulated by a complex mix of local and systemic factors. As reviewed here, these findings suggest a more integrated model of clock network interaction with the central pacemaker as the main source of behavioral and systemic-physiological rhythms and peripheral clocks controlling some local rhythms while at the same time acting as gatekeepers that temporally adjust cellular responses to external stimuli.

Central Hypothyroidism Impairs Heart Rate Stability and Prevents Thyroid Hormone-Induced Cardiac Hypertrophy and Pyrexia.

Background: Tachycardia, cardiac hypertrophy, and elevated body temperature are major signs of systemic hyperthyroidism, which are considered to reflect the excessive thyroid hormone (TH) action in the respective peripheral tissues. However, recent observations indicate that the central actions of TH also contribute substantially to cardiovascular regulation and thermogenesis. Methods: In this study, we dissect the individual contributions of peripheral TH action versus the central effects in body temperature regulation and cardiovascular functions by taking advantage of mice lacking the TH transporters monocarboxylate transporter 8 (MCT8) and organic anion transporting polypeptide 1C1 (OATP1C1) (M/O double knock-out [dko]), which exhibit elevated serum triiodothyronine (T3) levels while their brain is in a profoundly hypothyroid state. We compared these animals with wild-type (WT) mice that were treated orally with T3 to achieve similarly elevated serum T3 levels, but are centrally hyperthyroid. For the studies, we used radiotelemetry, infrared thermography, gene expression profiling, Western blot analyses, and enzyme linked immunosorbent assays (ELISA) assays. Results: Our analyses revealed mild hyperthermia and cardiac hypertrophy in T3-treated WT mice but not in M/O dko animals, suggesting that central actions of TH are required for these hyperthyroid phenotypes. Although the average heart rate was unaffected in either model, the M/O dko exhibited an altered heart rate frequency distribution with tachycardic bursts in active periods and bradycardic episodes during resting time, demonstrating that the stabilization of heart rate by the autonomic nervous system can be impaired in centrally hypothyroid animals. Conclusions: Our studies unravel distinct phenotypical traits of hyperthyroidism that depend on an intact central nervous system, and provide valuable insight into the cardiovascular pathology of the Allan-Herndon-Dudley syndrome, a condition caused by the lack of MCT8 in humans.

CD5L Constitutes a Novel Biomarker for Integrated Hepatic Thyroid Hormone Action.

Background: Pathological conditions of the thyroid hormone (TH) system are routinely diagnosed by using serum concentrations of thyrotropin (TSH), which is sufficient in most cases. However, in certain conditions, such as resistance to TH due to mutations in THRB (RTHb) or TSH-releasing pituitary adenoma (TSHoma), TSH may be insufficient for a correct diagnosis, even in combination with serum TH concentrations. Likewise, under TH replacement therapy, these parameters can be misleading and do not always allow optimal treatment. Hence, additional biomarkers to assess challenging clinical conditions would be highly beneficial. Methods: Data from untargeted multi-omics analyses of plasma samples from experimental thyrotoxicosis in human and mouse were exploited to identify proteins that might represent possible biomarkers of TH function. Subsequent mouse studies were used to identify the tissue of origin and the involvement of the two different TH receptors (TR). For in-depth characterization of the underlying cellular mechanisms, primary mouse cells were used. Results: The analysis of the plasma proteome data sets revealed 16 plasma proteins that were concordantly differentially abundant under thyroxine treatment compared with euthyroid controls across the two species. These originated predominantly from liver, spleen, and bone. Independent studies in a clinical cohort and different mouse models identified CD5L as the most robust putative biomarker under different serum TH states and treatment periods. In vitro studies revealed that CD5L originates from proinflammatory M1 macrophages, which are similar to liver-residing Kupffer cells, and is regulated by an indirect mechanism requiring the secretion of a yet unknown factor from hepatocytes. In agreement with the role of TRα1 in immune cells and the TRß-dependent hepatocyte-derived signaling, the in vivo regulation of Cd5l expression depended on both TR isoforms. Conclusion: Our results identify several novel targets of TH action in serum, with CD5L as the most robust marker. Although further studies will be needed to validate the specificity of these targets, CD5L seems to be a promising candidate to assess TH action in hepatocyte-macrophage crosstalk.

Unraveling the Molecular Basis for Successful Thyroid Hormone Replacement Therapy: The Need for New Thyroid Tissue- and Pathway-Specific Biomarkers.

Thyroid function is conventionally assessed by measurement of thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH) and free circulating thyroid hormones, which is in most cases sufficient for correct diagnosis and monitoring of treatment efficiency. However, several conditions exist, in which these parameters may be insufficient or even misleading. For instance, both, a TSH-secreting pituitary adenoma and a mutation of thyroid hormone receptor ß present with high levels of TSH and circulating hormones, but the optimal treatment is substantially different. Likewise, changes in thyroid hormone receptor α signaling are not captured by routine assessment of thyroid status, as serum parameters are usually inconspicuous. Therefore, new biomarkers are urgently needed to improve the diagnostic management and monitor treatment efficiency for e. g., replacement therapy in hypothyroidism or thyroid hormone resistance. By comparing animal models to human data, the present minireview summarizes the status of this search for new tissue- and pathway-specific biomarkers of thyroid hormone action.

Metagenomic next-generation sequencing aids the diagnosis of viral infections in febrile returning travellers.

OBJECTIVES: Travel-associated infections are challenging to diagnose because of the broad spectrum of potential aetiologies. As a proof-of-principle study, we used MNGS to identify viral pathogens in clinical samples from returning travellers in a single center to explore its suitability as a diagnostic tool. METHODS: Plasma samples from 40 returning travellers presenting with a fever of ≥38°C were sequenced using MNGS on the Illumina MiSeq platform and compared with standard-of-care diagnostic assays. RESULTS: In total, 11/40 patients were diagnosed with a viral infection. Standard of care diagnostics revealed 5 viral infections using plasma samples; dengue virus 1 (n = 2), hepatitis E (n = 1), Ebola virus (n = 1) and hepatitis A (n = 1), all of which were detected by MNGS. Three additional patients with Chikungunya virus (n = 2) and mumps virus were diagnosed by MNGS only. Respiratory infections detected by nasal/throat swabs only were not detected by MNGS of plasma. One patient had infection with malaria and mumps virus during the same admission. CONCLUSIONS: MNGS analysis of plasma samples improves the sensitivity of diagnosis of viral infections and has potential as an all-in-one diagnostic test. It can be used to identify infections that have not been considered by the treating physician, co-infections and new or emerging pathogens. SUMMARY: Next generation sequencing (NGS) has potential as an all-in-one diagnostic test. In this study we used NGS to diagnose returning travellers with acute febrile illness in the UK, highlighting cases where the diagnosis was missed using standard methods.

[Circadian rhythms - how do they influence our lives?] / Zirkadiane Rhythmen ­ Wie beeinflussen sie unser Leben?

CHRONODISRUPTION AND METABOLISM: The increased disruption of natural daily rhythms in modern societies interferes with the temporal coordination of physiological processes in the body. The resulting internal desynchronization favors the development of a range of diseases - including metabolic disorders such as obstipation, obesity, and type-2 diabetes. CHRONODISRUPTION AND IMMUNITY: The combination of chronodisruption and insomnia impairs the sensitivity and efficiency of the immune defense. Vice versa, a stabilization of the circadian system can confer an increased resilience against many pathogens. CHRONOMEDICINE: In recent years the field of chronobiology has developed from a basic science to a highly translational discipline. Besides classical chronotherapy, i. e. a temporally optimized drug scheduling, stabilization of the circadian system - by behavioral interventions or chronobiologicals - offers several novel targets for prevention and therapy of many widespread diseases.

Thyroid-Hormone-Induced Browning of White Adipose Tissue Does Not Contribute to Thermogenesis and Glucose Consumption.

Regulation of body temperature critically depends on thyroid hormone (TH). Recent studies revealed that TH induces browning of white adipose tissue, possibly contributing to the observed hyperthermia in hyperthyroid patients and potentially providing metabolic benefits. Here, we show that browning by TH requires TH-receptor ß and occurs independently of the sympathetic nervous system. The beige fat, however, lacks sufficient adrenergic stimulation and is not metabolically activated despite high levels of uncoupling protein 1 (UCP1). Studies at different environmental temperatures reveal that TH instead causes hyperthermia by actions in skeletal muscle combined with a central body temperature set-point elevation. Consequently, the metabolic and thermogenic effects of systemic hyperthyroidism were maintained in UCP1 knockout mice, demonstrating that neither beige nor brown fat contributes to the TH-induced hyperthermia and elevated glucose consumption, and underlining that the mere presence of UCP1 is insufficient to draw conclusions on the therapeutic potential of browning agents.

In vivo Effects of Repeated Thyronamine Administration in Male C57BL/6J Mice.

OBJECTIVES: Thyronamines are decarboxylated and deiodinated metabolites of thyroid hormones (THs). Of all possible thyronamine variants, only 3-iodothyronamine (3-T1AM) and iodine-free thyronamine (T0AM) have been detected in vivo. While intensive research has been done on the (patho-)physiological action of 3-T1AM, the role of T0AM has been studied less intensively. STUDY DESIGN: We determined whether a single pharmacological dose (50 mg/kg, i.p.) or repeated administration (5 mg/kg/day, i.p., for 7 days) of T0AM affects metabolism, cardiovascular function, or thermoregulation in male C57BL/6J mice. Since selenium (Se) is important for proper TH function and Se metabolism is affected by TH, we additionally analyzed Se concentrations in liver, serum, and kidney using total reflection X-ray analysis. RESULTS: A single injection of T0AM had no effect on heart rate, temperature, or activity as assessed by radio telemetry. Likewise, daily administration of T0AM did not alter body weight, food or water intake, heart rate, blood pressure, brown adipose tissue thermogenesis, or body temperature, and no significant differences in hepatic glycogen content or mRNA expression of genes involved in cardiovascular function or metabolic control were determined. Also, the X-ray analysis of Se concentrations revealed no significant changes. However, hepatic T0AM was significantly increased in the treated animals. CONCLUSIONS: In summary, our data demonstrate that T0AM elicits no obvious metabolic, cardiovascular, or thermoregulatory activities in mice. As T0AM does also not interfere with TH or Se metabolism, we conclude that the deiodination of 3-T1AM to T0AM constitutes an efficient inactivation mechanism, terminating the actions of the more powerful precursor.

Effects of sildenafil treatment on thermogenesis and glucose homeostasis in diet-induced obese mice.

Stimulation of thermogenic pathways appears to be a promising approach to find new ways of tackling metabolic diseases like obesity and diabetes mellitus type 2. Thermogenic, weight reducing and insulin sensitizing effects of phosphodiesterase 5 (PDE 5) inhibitors have recently been postulated, suggesting that modulators of endogenous cGMP signaling have the therapeutic potential to treat metabolic disorders. However, most studies have been performed in vitro or in animals that were not glucose intolerant. We, thus, aimed to test the metabolic effects of the PDE 5 inhibitor sildenafil by treating diet-induced obese (DIO) mice orally for 8 days. Surprisingly, our results revealed no changes in body temperature, brown adipose tissue (BAT) thermogenesis and gene expression in BAT and inguinal white adipose tissue (iWAT), thus excluding a thermogenic or 'browning' effect of sildenafil in preexisting obesity. In contrast, sildenafil-treated DIO mice displayed changes in liver metabolism and glucose homeostasis resulting in impaired glucose tolerance (P < 0.05), demonstrating for the first time an unfavorable metabolic effect of increased hepatic cGMP signaling in obesity. As sildenafil is commonly prescribed to treat pulmonary arterial hypertension and erectile dysfunction in diabetic and/or obese patients, follow up studies are urgently required to re-evaluate the drug safety.

Dwarfism and insulin resistance in male offspring caused by α1-adrenergic antagonism during pregnancy.

OBJECTIVE: Maternal and environmental factors control the epigenetic fetal programming of the embryo, thereby defining the susceptibility for metabolic or endocrine disorders in the offspring. Pharmacological interventions required as a consequence of gestational problems, e.g. hypertension, can potentially interfere with correct fetal programming. As epigenetic alterations are usually only revealed later in life and not detected in studies focusing on early perinatal outcomes, little is known about the long-term epigenetic effects of gestational drug treatments. We sought to test the consequences of maternal α1-adrenergic antagonism during pregnancy, which can occur e.g. during hypertension treatment, for the endocrine and metabolic phenotype of the offspring. METHODS: We treated C57BL/6NCrl female mice with the α1-adrenergic antagonist prazosin during pregnancy and analyzed the male and female offspring for endocrine and metabolic abnormalities. RESULTS: Our data revealed that maternal α1-adrenergic blockade caused dwarfism, elevated body temperature, and insulin resistance in male offspring, accompanied by reduced IGF-1 serum concentrations as the result of reduced hepatic growth hormone receptor (Ghr) expression. We subsequently identified increased CpG DNA methylation at the transcriptional start site of the alternative Ghr promotor caused by the maternal treatment, which showed a strong inverse correlation to hepatic Ghr expression. CONCLUSIONS: Our results demonstrate that maternal α1-adrenergic blockade can constitute an epigenetic cause for dwarfism and insulin resistance. The findings are of immediate clinical relevance as combined α/ß-adrenergic blockers are first-line treatment of maternal hypertension.

A Nonradioactive DEHAL Assay for Testing Substrates, Inhibitors, and Monitoring Endogenous Activity.

Iodotyrosine deiodinase (DEHAL1) is a crucial enzyme in iodine homeostasis. Unbound mono- and diiodotyrosines are indispensable byproducts of thyroid hormone biosynthesis. Their iodine needs to be recovered to avoid iodine deficiency, as observed in genetic defects in DEHAL1. Despite its importance, the enzyme is rarely studied. The deiodination process can be monitored by radioactive tracers or via techniques involving mass spectrometry. However, isotope-labeled molecules are expensive, not always commercially available, and their use is legally restricted, whereas mass spectrometry requires sophisticated, costly, and sensitive instrumentation. To circumvent these difficulties, we adapted the nonradioactive iodothyronine deiodinase assay to determine DEHAL1 activity by a colorimetric readout, based on the Sandell-Kolthoff reaction. DEHAL1 was recombinantly expressed and used to optimize the assay in microtiter format. We applied the setup to scenarios of alternative substrate screening or search for compounds potentially acting as endocrine disrupting compounds, without identifying novel readily accepted substrates or inhibitors yet. Next, the assay was adapted to ex vivo material, and activity was reliably determined from rodent kidney and other tissues. Analyzing two mouse models of hyperthyroidism, we observed a decreased renal Dehal1 activity and mRNA expression. Our results show that this nonradioactive DEHAL1 assay is suited to screen for potential endocrine disrupters and to monitor endogenous Dehal1 expression. We harmonized the assay protocols to enable iodothyronine deiodinase and DEHAL1 activity measurements from the same samples. Hereby, a more complete view on iodine metabolism by these predominant deiodinating activities can be obtained from a given sample by a similar process flow.

Thermoregulatory and Cardiovascular Consequences of a Transient Thyrotoxicosis and Recovery in Male Mice.

Thyroid hormones play a major role in body homeostasis, regulating energy expenditure and cardiovascular function. Given that obese people or athletes might consider rapid weight loss as beneficial, voluntary intoxication with T4 preparations is a growing cause for thyrotoxicosis. However, the long-lasting effects of transient thyrotoxicosis are poorly understood. Here we examined metabolic, thermoregulatory, and cardiovascular function upon induction and recovery from a 2-week thyrotoxicosis in male C57BL/6J mice. Our results showed that T4 treatment caused tachycardia, decreased hepatic glycogen stores, and higher body temperature as expected; however, we did not observe an increase in brown fat thermogenesis or decreased tail heat loss, suggesting that these tissues do not contribute to the hyperthermia induced by thyroid hormone. Most interestingly, when the T4 treatment was ended, a pronounced bradycardia was observed in the animals, which was likely caused by a rapid decline of T3 even below baseline levels. On the molecular level, this was accompanied by an overexpression of cardiac phospholamban and Serca2a mRNA, supporting the hypothesis that the heart depends more on T3 than T4. Our findings therefore demonstrate that a transient thyrotoxicosis can have pathological effects that even persist beyond the recovery of serum T4 levels, and in particular the observed bradycardia could be of clinical relevance when treating hyperthyroid patients.

3-Iodothyroacetic acid lacks thermoregulatory and cardiovascular effects in vivo.

BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE: 3-Iodothyronamine (3-T1 AM) is an endogenous thyroid hormone derivative reported to induce strong hypothermia and bradycardia within minutes upon injection in rodents. Although 3-T1 AM is rapidly converted to several other metabolites in vivo, these strong pharmacological responses were solely attributed to 3-T1 AM, leaving potential contributions of downstream products untested. We therefore examined the cardiometabolic effects of 3-iodothyroacetic acid (TA1 ), the main degradation product of 3-T1 AM. EXPERIMENTAL APPROACH: We used a sensitive implantable radiotelemetry system in C57/Bl6J mice to study the effects of TA1 on body temperature and heart rate, as well as other metabolic parameters. KEY RESULTS: Interestingly, despite using pharmacological TA1 doses, we observed no effects on heart rate or body temperature after a single TA1 injection (50 mg·kg(-1) , i.p.) compared to sham-injected controls. Repeated administration of TA1 (5 mg·kg(-1) , i.p. for 7 days) likewise did not alter body weight, food and water intake, heart rate, blood pressure, brown adipose tissue (BAT) thermogenesis or body temperature. Moreover, mRNA expression of tissue specific genes in heart, kidney, liver, BAT and lung was also not altered by TA1 compared to sham-injected controls. CONCLUSIONS AND IMPLICATIONS: Our data therefore conclusively demonstrate that TA1 does not contribute to the cardiovascular or thermoregulatory effects observed after 3-T1 AM administration in mice, suggesting that the oxidative deamination constitutes an important deactivation mechanism for 3-T1 AM with possible implications for cardiovascular and thermoregulatory functions.