Association of occupational stress with waking, diurnal, and bedtime cortisol response in police officers.

OBJECTIVE: Police officers have higher rates of cardiovascular disease (CVD) morbidity and mortality than the U.S. general population. Officers are exposed to conventional and unexpected workplace stressors. The hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis plays a major role responding to stressor exposure by releasing cortisol. Prolonged release or excessive levels may result in disease. Our study investigated cross-sectional associations between self-reported work stress and various salivary cortisol parameters. METHODS: A total of 285 police officers (76.5% male) from the Buffalo Cardio-Metabolic Occupational Police Stress (BCOPS) Study (2004-2009) completed the Spielberger Police Stress Survey, reporting frequency and severity of work events during the past month and year to calculate stress indices. Officers provided saliva samples to measure levels of cortisol secretion. Linear regression assessed associations between stress indices and various cortisol parameters, adjusted for age, gender, race/ethnicity, abdominal height, and smoking status. RESULTS: Significant positive associations were observed between stress indices (overall stress, physical danger stress, and past-month lack of support) and diurnal cortisol (AUCg: total area under the curve). Administrative, overall, and physical danger stress in the past year were significantly associated with the diurnal slope. Overall, administrative, and physical danger stress were significantly associated with bedtime levels. There were no significant associations between the stress indices and the awakening cortisol parameters. CONCLUSIONS: Higher stress ratings were related to blunted diurnal decline in cortisol, suggesting conventional and unexpected police stressors may result in HPA axis dysfunction. Future studies investigating possible associations between elevated cortisol and subclinical CVD are needed.

Influence of Work Characteristics on the Association Between Police Stress and Sleep Quality.

BACKGROUND: Police officers' stress perception, frequency of stressful events (stressors), and police work characteristics may contribute to poor sleep quality through different mechanisms. METHODS: We investigated associations of stress severity (measured by stress rating score) and frequency of stressors with sleep quality and examined the influence of police work characteristics including workload, police rank, prior military experience, and shift work on the associations. Participants were 356 police officers (256 men and 100 women) enrolled in the Buffalo Cardio-Metabolic Occupational Police Stress Study from 2004 to 2009. A mean stress rating score and mean frequency of stressors occurring in the past month were computed for each participant from the Spielberger Police Stress Survey data. Sleep quality was assessed using the global score derived from the Pittsburgh Sleep Quality Index survey. Linear associations of the stress rating score and frequency of stressors with sleep quality (Pittsburgh Sleep Quality Index global score) were tested. Age, sex, race/ethnicity, and smoking status were selected as potential confounders. RESULTS: The stress rating score was positively and independently associated with poor sleep quality (ß = 0.17, p = 0.002). Only workload significantly modified this association (ß = 0.23, p = 0.001 for high workload group; p-interaction = 0.109). The frequency of stressors was positively and independently associated with poor sleep quality (ß = 0.13, p = 0.025). Only police rank significantly modified the association (ß = 0.007, p = 0.004 for detectives/other executives; p-interaction = 0.076). CONCLUSION: Both police officers' perception of stress severity and the frequency of stressors are associated with poor sleep quality. Stress coping or sleep promotion regimens may be more beneficial among police officers reporting high workloads.

Shiftwork and Biomarkers of Subclinical Cardiovascular Disease: The BCOPS Study.

OBJECTIVE: To assess the association of shiftwork with biomarkers of subclinical cardiovascular disease and examine the moderating role of body mass index (BMI) in a police cohort. METHODS: A cross-sectional analysis was conducted among officers who were categorized as working the day, evening, or night shift. Comparisons with inflammatory biomarkers were performed among shifts using analysis of variance/covariance and further stratified by BMI to assess potential effect modification. RESULTS: Associations were observed between day and night shiftworkers for leukocytes, tumor necrosis factor alpha, and homocysteine. After BMI stratification, higher c-reactive protein (CRP) levels were observed among evening shiftworkers with a BMI more than or equal to 30 kg/m versus the day shift. CONCLUSIONS: Future studies examining prospective changes in these markers will allow for more comprehensive evaluation of their association with shiftwork.

Police stress and depressive symptoms: role of coping and hardiness.

PURPOSE ­: Chronic exposure to occupational stress may lead to depressive symptoms in police officers. The association between police stress and depressive symptoms and the potential influences of coping and hardiness were evaluated. The paper aims to discuss this issue. DESIGN/METHODOLOGY/APPROACH ­: Stress level was assessed in the Buffalo Cardio-Metabolic Occupational Police Stress Study (2004-2009) with the Spielberger Police Stress Survey. The frequency and severity of events at work were used to calculate stress indices for the past year. The Center for Epidemiologic Studies Depression (CES-D) Scale was used to measure depressive symptoms during the past week. Linear regression was used to evaluate the association between the stress indices and depressive symptom scores. Models were adjusted for age, sex, race, smoking status and alcohol intake, and stratified by median values for coping (passive, active and support seeking) and hardiness (control, commitment and challenge) to assess effect modification. FINDINGS ­: Among the 388 officers (73.2 percent men), a significant positive association was observed between total stress and the CES-D score (ß = 1.98 (SE = 0.36); p < 0.001). Lower CES-D scores were observed for officers who reported lower passive coping (ß = 0.94 (SE = 0.45); p = 0.038) and higher active coping (ß = 1.41 (SE = 0.44); p = 0.002), compared with their counterparts. Officers higher in hardiness had lower CES-D scores, particularly for commitment (ß = 0.86 (SE = 0.35); p = 0.016) and control (ß = 1.58 (SE = 0.34); p < 0.001). ORIGINALITY/VALUE ­: Results indicate that high active coping and hardiness modify the effect of work stress in law enforcement, acting to reduce depressive symptoms.

Associations Between Police Work Stressors and Posttraumatic Stress Disorder Symptoms: Examining the Moderating Effects of Coping.

The role of coping in the association between stress and posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) is not clear. We investigated the effects of active and passive coping strategies on the associations between police stress (administrative and organization pressure, physical and psychological threats, and lack of support) and PTSD symptoms in 342 police officers. Linear regression model was used in the analyses. The association between physical and psychological stress and PTSD symptoms was stronger in officers who used lower active coping (B = 4.34, p <0.001) compared to those who utilized higher active coping (p -interaction = 0.027) (B =1.79, p ≤ 0.003). A similar result was found between lack of support and PTSD symptoms (p -interaction = 0.016) (lower active coping, B = 5.70, p < 0.001; higher active coping, B = 3.33, p <0.001), but was not significantly different comparing the two groups regarding the association between administrative and organizational pressure and PTSD symptoms (p -interaction = 0.376). Associations of total stress, administrative and organizational pressure, and physical and psychological stressors with PTSD symptoms were significantly stronger in officers who utilized higher passive coping (p -interaction = 0.011, 0.030, and 0.023, respectively). In conclusion, low active or high passive coping methods may exacerbate the effect of work stress on PTSD symptoms.

Cardiovascular Disease Burden and Socioeconomic Correlates: Findings From the Jackson Heart Study.

BACKGROUND: Black persons have an excess burden of cardiovascular disease (CVD) compared with white persons. This burden persists after adjustment for socioeconomic status and other known CVD risk factors. This study evaluated the CVD burden and the socioeconomic gradient of CVD among black participants in the JHS (Jackson Heart Study). METHODS AND RESULTS: CVD burden was evaluated by comparing the observed prevalence of myocardial infarction, stroke, and hypertension in the JHS at baseline (2000-2004) with the expected prevalence according to US national surveys during a similar time period. The socioeconomic gradient of CVD was evaluated using logistic regression models. Compared with the national data, the JHS age- and sex-standardized prevalence ratios for myocardial infarction, stroke, and hypertension were 1.07 (95% CI, 0.90-1.27), 1.46 (95% CI, 1.18-1.78), and 1.51 (95% CI, 1.42-1.60), respectively, in men and 1.50 (95% CI, 1.27-1.76), 1.33 (95% CI, 1.12-1.57), and 1.43 (95% CI, 1.37-1.50), respectively, in women. A significant and inverse relationship was observed between socioeconomic status and CVD within the JHS cohort. The strongest and most consistent socioeconomic correlate after adjusting for age and sex was income for myocardial infarction (odds ratio: 3.53; 95% CI, 2.31-5.40) and stroke (odds ratio: 3.73; 95% CI, 2.32-5.97), comparing the poor and affluent income categories. CONCLUSIONS: Except for myocardial infarction in men, CVD burden in the JHS cohort was higher than expected. A strong inverse socioeconomic gradient of CVD was also observed within the JHS cohort.

Association of shiftwork and immune cells among police officers from the Buffalo Cardio-Metabolic Occupational Police Stress study.

Shift workers suffer from a constellation of symptoms associated with disruption of circadian rhythms including sleep abnormalities, and abnormal hormone secretion (e.g. melatonin, cortisol). Recent, but limited, evidence suggests that shift workers have elevated levels of circulating white blood cells (WBCs) compared to their day working counterparts. Interestingly, recent reviews highlight the strong linkage between the immune system and circadian rhythms which includes, but is not limited to, circulating cell populations and functions. The elevated levels of these WBCs may be associated with the increased chronic disease risk observed among this group. The purpose of this analysis was to examine the cross-sectional association between long- and short-term (3, 5, 7, and 14 days) shiftwork (SW) and counts of WBCs among officers in the Buffalo Cardio-Metabolic Occupational Police Stress (BCOPS) cohort. Data collection for this analysis took place among 464 police officers working in Buffalo, New York, USA between 2004 and 2009. Precise SW histories were obtained using electronic payroll records. Officers were assigned a shift type based on the shift (i.e. day, evening, night) that they spent a majority (i.e. ≥50%) of their time from 1994 to the data collection date for long-term SW. The same process was applied to SW over 3, 5, 7, and 14 days prior to data collection. A fasted blood sample collected in the morning of a non-work day was used for characterization of WBCs (total), neutrophils, monocytes, lymphocytes, eosinophils, and basophils. Potential confounding factors included demographic characteristics (e.g. age, sex, race), occupational characteristics (e.g. rank), health behaviors (e.g. smoking, alcohol consumption, diet), anthropometrics, and other biomarkers (e.g. lipids, hemoglobin A1C, leptin). Generalized linear models were used to estimate least square means of the immune cells according to SW categorization for long- and short-term SW histories. Compared to the day shift group, those working long-term night shifts had greater absolute numbers of total WBCs, neutrophils, lymphocytes, and monocytes (all p < 0.05). Those working mainly on the night shift over 7-days had elevated counts of WBCs, lymphocytes, and monocytes (p < 0.05) compared to those mainly working day shifts. Results based on 3-, 5-, and 14-day SW were similar to the 7-day results. This study corroborates other studies with similar findings. However, this analysis provided insights into the effect of both long- and short-term SW on the number of circulating WBCs. SW may lead to disruption of circadian-influenced components of the immune system, which in term, may result in various chronic diseases. These findings, plus previous findings, may provide evidence that SW may lead to immune system dysregulation. Future research is needed to understand whether increases in immune cells among shift workers may be associated with the increased disease risk among this group.

Police work stressors and cardiac vagal control.

OBJECTIVES: This study examines relationships between the frequency and intensity of police work stressors and cardiac vagal control, estimated using the high frequency component of heart rate variability (HRV). METHODS: This is a cross-sectional study of 360 officers from the Buffalo New York Police Department. Police stress was measured using the Spielberger police stress survey, which includes exposure indices created as the product of the self-evaluation of how stressful certain events were and the self-reported frequency with which they occurred. Vagal control was estimated using the high frequency component of resting HRV calculated in units of milliseconds squared and reported in natural log scale. Associations between police work stressors and vagal control were examined using linear regression for significance testing and analysis of covariance for descriptive purposes, stratified by gender, and adjusted for age and race/ethnicity. RESULTS: There were no significant associations between police work stressor exposure indices and vagal control among men. Among women, the inverse associations between the lack of support stressor exposure and vagal control were statistically significant in adjusted models for indices of exposure over the past year (lowest stressor quartile: M = 5.57, 95% CI 5.07 to 6.08, and highest stressor quartile: M = 5.02, 95% CI 4.54 to 5.51, test of association from continuous linear regression of vagal control on lack of support stressor ß = -0.273, P = .04). CONCLUSIONS: This study supports an inverse association between lack of organizational support and vagal control among female but not male police officers.

Associations Between Body Fat Percentage and Fitness among Police Officers: A Statewide Study.

BACKGROUND: Police work is generally sedentary although there may be situations that require physical endurance and strength, such as foot chases and arresting suspects. Factors such as excessive body fat can impede an officer's physical ability to deal with such occurrences. Our objective was to examine associations between officers' body fat percentage (BF%) and performance on a standardized fitness protocol. METHODS: Data were obtained from fitness screening among 1,826 male and 115 female officers in a large US police agency. The screening consisted of a 2.4-km run, push-ups, sit-ups, and sit-and-reach test. Sex-specific body fat percentages were estimated from skinfold thickness measured using calipers. Linear regression models were used to examine unadjusted and adjusted mean scores of fitness tests across BF% tertiles. RESULTS: The prevalence of overall fitness was 4.3 times greater in male officers and 3.6 times greater in female officers having the lowest BF% tertile compared with the highest tertile (30.3% vs 7.1% and 46.0% vs 12.8%, respectively). BF% was linearly and positively associated with the time of 2.4-km run (p < 0.001), and linearly and inversely associated with the number of push-ups (p < 0.001), sit-ups (p < 0.001), and the distance of sit-and-reach (p < 0.001) in men. Similar associations were observed in women with the exception of sit-and-reach (p = 0.122). Associations were independent of age, race/ethnicity, rank, and duty station. CONCLUSION: Overall, BF% was inversely associated with fitness levels in male and female officers. Future longitudinal studies should be initiated to explore the potentially causal relationship between BF% and fitness in law enforcement officers.

Fatigue and on-duty injury among police officers: The BCOPS study.

INTRODUCTION: Policing involves inherent physical and psychological dangers as well as occupational stressors that could lead to chronic fatigue. Although accounts of adverse events associated with police fatigue are not scarce, literature on the association between chronic fatigue and on-duty injury are limited. METHODS: Participants were officers from the Buffalo Cardio-Metabolic Occupational Police Stress (BCOPS) Study. A 10-item questionnaire was administered to assess how tired or energetic the officers generally felt irrespective of sleep hours or workload. The questionnaire consisted of five positively worded and five negatively phrased items that measured feelings of vigor/energy and tiredness, respectively. Total as well as separate scores for positive and negative items were computed by summing scores of individual items. Payroll records documenting each officer's work history were used to assess occurrence of injury. Poisson regression was used to estimate prevalence ratios (PR) of injury. RESULTS: Nearly 40% of officers reported feeling drained. Overall prevalence of on-duty injury during the past year was 23.9%. Injury prevalence showed a significant increasing trend across tertiles of total fatigue score: 19.6, 21.7, and 30.8% for lowest, middle and highest tertiles, respectively (trend p-value=0.037). After controlling for potential confounders, a 5-unit increase in total fatigue score was associated with a 12% increase in prevalence of injury which was marginally significant (p=0.075). A 5-unit increase in fatigue score of the positively worded items was associated with a 33% increase in prevalence of injury (PR=1.33, 95% CI: 1.04-1.70, p=0.022). CONCLUSION: Officers who do not feel active, full of vigor, alert, or lively had a significantly higher prevalence of non-fatal work place injury compared to their counter parts. Practical applications: With additional prospective evidence, workplace interventions designed to enhance level of energy may reduce feelings of tiredness and hence may prevent workplace injury.

Police stressors and health: a state-of-the-art review.

PURPOSE ­: The purpose of this paper is to provide a state-of-the-art review on the topic of police stressors and associated health outcomes. Recent empirical research is reviewed in the areas of workplace stress, shift work, traumatic stress, and health. The authors provide a comprehensive table outlining occupational exposures and related health effects in police officers. DESIGN/METHODOLOGY/APPROACH ­: A review of recent empirical research on police stress and untoward psychological and physiological health outcomes in police officers. FINDINGS ­: The results offer a conceptual idea of the empirical associations between stressful workplace exposures and their impact on the mental and physical well-being of officers. RESEARCH LIMITATIONS/IMPLICATIONS ­: A key limitation observed in prior research is the cross-sectional study design; however, this serves as a motivator for researchers to explore these associations utilizing a longitudinal study design that will help determine causality. ORIGINALITY/VALUE ­: This review provides empirical evidence of both mental and physical outcomes associated with police stress and the processes involved in both. Research findings presented in this paper are based on sound psychological and medical evidence among police officers.

The impact of perceived intensity and frequency of police work occupational stressors on the cortisol awakening response (CAR): Findings from the BCOPS study.

Police officers encounter unpredictable, evolving, and escalating stressful demands in their work. Utilizing the Spielberger Police Stress Survey (60-item instrument for assessing specific conditions or events considered to be stressors in police work), the present study examined the association of the top five highly rated and bottom five least rated work stressors among police officers with their awakening cortisol pattern. Participants were police officers enrolled in the Buffalo Cardio-Metabolic Occupational Police Stress (BCOPS) study (n=338). For each group, the total stress index (product of rating and frequency of the stressor) was calculated. Participants collected saliva by means of Salivettes at four time points: on awakening, 15, 30 and 45min after waking to examine the cortisol awakening response (CAR). Saliva samples were analyzed for free cortisol concentrations. A slope reflecting the awakening pattern of cortisol over time was estimated by fitting a linear regression model relating cortisol in log-scale to time of collection. The slope served as the outcome variable. Analysis of covariance, regression, and repeated measures models were used to determine if there was an association of the stress index with the waking cortisol pattern. There was a significant negative linear association between total stress index of the five highest stressful events and slope of the awakening cortisol regression line (trend p-value=0.0024). As the stress index increased, the pattern of the awakening cortisol regression line tended to flatten. Officers with a zero stress index showed a steep and steady increase in cortisol from baseline (which is often observed) while officers with a moderate or high stress index showed a dampened or flatter response over time. Conversely, the total stress index of the five least rated events was not significantly associated with the awakening cortisol pattern. The study suggests that police events or conditions considered highly stressful by the officers may be associated with disturbances of the typical awakening cortisol pattern. The results are consistent with previous research where chronic exposure to stressors is associated with a diminished awakening cortisol response pattern.

Prevalence and trends of leisure-time physical activity by occupation and industry in U.S. workers: the National Health Interview Survey 2004-2014.

PURPOSE: Studies describing prevalence and trends of physical activity among workers in the United States are scarce. We aimed to estimate prevalence and trends of "sufficient" leisure-time physical activity (LTPA) during the 2004-2014 time period among U.S. workers. METHODS: Data were collected for U.S. workers in the National Health Interview Survey. LTPA was categorized as sufficiently active (moderate intensity, ≥150 minutes per week), insufficiently active (10-149 minutes per week), and inactive (<10 minutes per week). Prevalence of LTPA was adjusted for age using 2010 U.S. working population as a standardized age distribution. RESULTS: Prevalence trends of "sufficient" LTPA significantly increased from 2004 to 2014 (45.6% to 54.8%; P < .001). Among industry groups, the highest prevalence of "sufficient" LTPA was observed among workers in Professional/Scientific/Technical Services (62.1%). The largest increases were observed among workers in Public Administration (51.3%-63.4%). Among occupational groups, "sufficient" LTPA prevalence was lowest in farming/fishing/forestry (30.8%) and highest in life/physical/social science (66.4%). Prevalence of LTPA significantly increased from 2004 to 2014 in most occupational and industry groups. CONCLUSIONS: Among U.S. workers, trends of "sufficient" LTPA significantly increased between 2004 and 2014. Overall, a larger proportion of white-collar compared to blue-collar workers were engaged in "sufficient" LTPA.

Prevalence of work-site injuries and relationship between obesity and injury among U.S. workers: NHIS 2004-2012.

INTRODUCTION: Studies have reported associations between obesity and injury in a single occupation or industry. Our study estimated the prevalence of work-site injuries and investigated the association between obesity and work-site injury in a nationally representative sample of U.S. workers. METHODS: Self-reported weight, height, and injuries within the previous three months were collected annually for U.S. workers in the National Health Interview Survey (NHIS) from 2004-2012. Participants were categorized as normal weight (BMI: 18.5-24.9kg/m(2)), overweight (BMI: 25.0-29.9), obese I (BMI: 30.0-34.9), and obese II (BMI: 35+). The prevalence of injury and prevalence ratios from fitted logistic regression models was used to assess relationships between obesity and injury after adjusting for covariates. Sampling weights were incorporated using SUDAAN software. RESULTS: During the 9-year study period from 2004 to 2012, 1120 workers (78 workers per 10,000) experienced a work-related injury during the previous three months. The anatomical sites with the highest prevalence of injury were the back (14.3/10,000±1.2), fingers (11.5±1.3), and knees (7.1±0.8). The most common types of injuries were sprains/strains/twists (41.5% of all injuries), cuts (20.0%), and fractures (11.8%). Compared to normal weight workers, overweight and obese workers were more likely to experience work-site injuries [overweight: PR=1.25 (95% CI=1.04-1.52); obese I: 1.41 (1.14-1.74); obese II: 1.68 (1.32-2.14)]. These injuries were more likely to affect the lower extremities [overweight: PR=1.48, (95% CI=1.03-2.13); obese I: 1.70 (1.13-2.55); obese II: 2.91 (1.91-4.41)] and were more likely to be due to sprains/strains/twists [overweight: PR=1.73 (95% CI=1.29-2.31); obese I: PR=2.24 (1.64-3.06); obese II: PR=2.95 (2.04-4.26)]. CONCLUSIONS: Among NHIS participants, overweight and obese workers were 25% to 68% more likely to experience injuries than normal weight workers. PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS: Weight reduction policies and management programs may be effectively targeted towards overweight and obese groups to prevent or reduce work-site injuries.

Separate and Joint Associations of Shift Work and Sleep Quality with Lipids.

BACKGROUND: Shift work and/or sleep quality may affect health. We investigated whether shift work and sleep quality, separately and jointly, were associated with abnormal levels of triglycerides, total cholesterol (TC), and low-and high-density lipoprotein cholesterol in 360 police officers (27.5% women). METHODS: Triglycerides, TC, and high-density lipoprotein were analyzed on the Abbott Architect; low-density lipoprotein was calculated. Shift work was assessed using City of Buffalo payroll work history records. Sleep quality (good, ≤ 5; intermediate, 6-8; poor, ≥ 9) was assessed using the Pittsburgh Sleep Quality Index questionnaire. A shift work + sleep quality variable was created: day plus good sleep; day plus poor sleep; afternoon/night plus good; and poor sleep quality. Mean values of lipid biomarkers were compared across categories of the exposures using analysis of variance/analysis of covariance. RESULTS: Shift work was not significantly associated with lipids. However, as sleep quality worsened, mean levels of triglycerides and TC gradually increased but only among female officers (age- and race-adjusted p = 0.013 and 0.030, respectively). Age significantly modified the association between sleep quality and TC. Among officers ≥ 40 years old, those reporting poor sleep quality had a significantly higher mean level of TC (202.9 ± 3.7 mg/dL) compared with those reporting good sleep quality (190.6 ± 4.0 mg/dL) (gender- and race-adjusted p = 0.010). Female officers who worked the day shift and also reported good sleep quality had the lowest mean level of TC compared with women in the other three categories (p = 0.014). CONCLUSION: Sleep quality and its combined influence with shift work may play a role in the alteration of some lipid measures.

Shiftwork and Diurnal Salivary Cortisol Patterns Among Police Officers.

OBJECTIVE: To investigate associations between shiftwork and diurnal salivary cortisol among 319 police officers (77.7% men). METHODS: Information on shiftwork was obtained from the City of Buffalo, NY electronic payroll records. Saliva was collected using Salivettes at seven time points and analyzed for free cortisol concentrations (nmol/L) using a chemiluminescence immunoassay. Mean slopes and areas under the curve were compared across shift schedule using analysis of variance (ANOVA)/analysis of covariance (ANCOVA). RESULTS: Officers working primarily on the night shift had a significantly shallower slope. Mean slope (nmol/L/minutes) of the cortisol curve varied significantly across shifts (day: -0.00332 ±â€Š0.00017, afternoon: -0.00313 ±â€Š0.00018, night: -0.00257 ±â€Š0.0002); adjusted P = 0.023. CONCLUSIONS: Our results suggest that night shiftwork is a workplace factor that may alter the response of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis to the circadian cues responsible for the pattern of the diurnal cortisol curve.

Shift Work and Sleep Quality Among Urban Police Officers: The BCOPS Study.

OBJECTIVE: The aim of the study was to examine association of shift work with sleep quality in police officers. METHODS: Data were obtained from the Buffalo Cardio-Metabolic Occupational Police Stress study (n = 363). An electronic work history database was used to define shift as day, afternoon, or night for three durations: past month, 1 year, and 15 years. Sleep quality was determined using the Pittsburgh Sleep Quality Index. RESULTS: The overall prevalence of poor sleep quality was 54%; 44% for day, 60% for afternoon, and 69% for night shift. Poor sleep quality was 70% more prevalent among night-shift officers (P < 0.001) and 49% higher among those on the afternoon shift (P = 0.003) relative to officers working on the day shift. CONCLUSIONS: Night and evening work schedules are associated with elevated prevalence of poor sleep quality among police officers.

Correlates of hopelessness in the high suicide risk police occupation.

Police officers are chronically exposed to work stress. We examined specific stressors that may be associated with hopelessness, a possible risk factor for suicide in this high suicide risk population. The study included 378 officers (276 men and 102 women) with complete data. Analysis of variance was used to estimate mean levels of hopelessness scores as associated with stress, adjusted for age, gender, and race/ ethnicity. Posttraumatic symptoms were tested as a modifier of the association between stress and hopelessness. Increasing stress of administrative practices and lack of support were significantly associated with increasing hopelessness among officers (p < .006 - hopelessness range: 1.64-2.65; and p < .001 - hopelessness range 1.60-2.80, respectively). Posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) symptoms significantly modified the association between lack of organizational support and hopelessness (p < .010) with significant association only among individuals with higher PTSD symptoms (p < .001). Results suggest that hopelessness is associated with specific stressors in police work, and this is modified by posttraumatic symptomatology.

Highly Rated and most Frequent Stressors among Police Officers: Gender Differences.

This descriptive study examined the top five most frequent and highly rated occupational stressors from the Spielberger Police Stress Survey among 365 police officers enrolled in the Buffalo Cardio-Metabolic Occupational Police Stress (BCOPS) Study (2004-2009). Prevalence, frequency, and rating of stressors were compared across gender. Poisson regression was used to estimate the prevalence and prevalence ratio (PR) of events. Analysis of variance was used to compare mean frequency of occurrence and mean stress ratings by gender. Many reported stressors dealt with violent situations. Responding to family disputes (83 %) was reported as the most frequent stressor and exposure to battered children (27 %) was the most highly rated stressor (mean rating: 67.6 ± 35.3). Killing someone in the line of duty (mean rating: 66.3 ± 43.0) and experiencing a fellow officer being killed (mean rating: 65.3 ± 40.6) were highly rated but infrequent (0.27 % and 3.6 %, respectively). Male officers tended to report more frequent stressors which took away from their time off duty such as court appearances (PR = 1.26, 1.04-1.52) and working second jobs (PR = 2.37, 1.57-3.57). In contrast, female officers reported experiencing a 37 % higher prevalence of lack of support from supervisor (PR = 0.63, 0.48-0.82) relative to male officers. Results of the present study are discussed within the context of specific police stressors and gender.

High-protein meal challenge reveals the association between the salivary cortisol response and metabolic syndrome in police officers.

OBJECTIVES: Policing is considered a high-stress occupation and officers have elevated cardiovascular morbidity and mortality. To investigate a potential connection, we evaluated the association between salivary cortisol response to a high-protein meal challenge and the metabolic syndrome (MetSyn), a subclinical disorder associated with increased cardiovascular risk. METHODS: Cross-sectional data were from the Buffalo Cardio-Metabolic Occupational Police Stress (BCOPS) Study (2004-2009). MetSyn was defined as having ≥3 components: abdominal obesity, hypertension, elevated triglycerides, reduced high-density lipoprotein cholesterol, and glucose intolerance. Officers provided five saliva samples for cortisol analysis, one before challenge (high-protein shake) and four at 15-min intervals thereafter, where the usual response is increase. Regression models were used to examine trends in mean number of MetSyn components across quartiles of area under the curve (AUC) salivary cortisol. Patterns of mean cortisol response were assessed by MetSyn status using repeated-measures analysis of covariance. RESULTS: Prevalence of MetSyn was 25.7% among 373 officers (74.0% male). The mean count of MetSyn components decreased (1.89, 1.75, 1.55, 1.37; P < 0.01) across increasing quartiles of AUC salivary cortisol. Mean salivary cortisol decreased from baseline (5.55, 4.58, 4.47, 4.79, 4.75 nmol/l) in officers with MetSyn and increased (5.08, 5.82, 5.92, 5.82, 5.60 nmol/l) in their counterparts. The test for interaction between MetSyn status and time of saliva collection was statistically significant (P < 0.001). CONCLUSIONS: Reduced cortisol response to a high-protein meal challenge may be associated with MetSyn. Future longitudinal studies could provide useful evidence for planning intervention studies on cardiovascular risk among police officers.