Discovery of a highly potent, selective, orally bioavailable inhibitor of KAT6A/B histone acetyltransferases with efficacy against KAT6A-high ER+ breast cancer.

KAT6A, and its paralog KAT6B, are histone lysine acetyltransferases (HAT) that acetylate histone H3K23 and exert an oncogenic role in several tumor types including breast cancer where KAT6A is frequently amplified/overexpressed. However, pharmacologic targeting of KAT6A to achieve therapeutic benefit has been a challenge. Here we describe identification of a highly potent, selective, and orally bioavailable KAT6A/KAT6B inhibitor CTx-648 (PF-9363), derived from a benzisoxazole series, which demonstrates anti-tumor activity in correlation with H3K23Ac inhibition in KAT6A over-expressing breast cancer. Transcriptional and epigenetic profiling studies show reduced RNA Pol II binding and downregulation of genes involved in estrogen signaling, cell cycle, Myc and stem cell pathways associated with CTx-648 anti-tumor activity in ER-positive (ER+) breast cancer. CTx-648 treatment leads to potent tumor growth inhibition in ER+ breast cancer in vivo models, including models refractory to endocrine therapy, highlighting the potential for targeting KAT6A in ER+ breast cancer.

Crystal structures of human ENPP1 in apo and bound forms.

Cancer is one of the leading causes of mortality in humans, and recent work has focused on the area of immuno-oncology, in which the immune system is used to specifically target cancerous cells. Ectonucleotide pyrophosphatase/phosphodiesterase 1 (ENPP1) is an emerging therapeutic target in human cancers owing to its role in degrading cyclic GMP-AMP (cGAMP), an agonist of the stimulator of interferon genes (STING). The available structures of ENPP1 are of the mouse enzyme, and no structures are available with anything other than native nucleotides. Here, the first X-ray crystal structures of the human ENPP1 enzyme in an apo form, with bound nucleotides and with two known inhibitors are presented. The availability of these structures and a robust crystallization system will allow the development of structure-based drug-design campaigns against this attractive cancer therapeutic target.

Fragment screening for a protein-protein interaction inhibitor to WDR5.

The WD40-repeat protein WDR5 scaffolds various epigenetic writers and is a critical component of the mammalian SET/MLL histone methyltransferase complex. Dysregulation of the MLL1 catalytic function is associated with mixed-lineage leukemia, and antagonism of the WDR5-MLL1 interaction by small molecules has been proposed as a therapeutic strategy for MLL-rearranged cancers. Small molecule binders of the "WIN" site of WDR5 that cause displacement from chromatin have been additionally implicated to be of broader use in cancer treatment. In this study, a fragment screen with Surface Plasmon Resonance (SPR) was used to identify a highly ligand-efficient imidazole-containing compound that is bound in the WIN site. The subsequent medicinal chemistry campaign-guided by a suite of high-resolution cocrystal structures with WDR5-progressed the initial hit to a low micromolar binder. One outcome from this study is a moiety that substitutes well for the side chain of arginine; a tripeptide containing one such substitution was resolved in a high resolution structure (1.5 Å) with a binding mode analogous to the native tripeptide. SPR furthermore indicates a similar residence time (k d = ∼0.06 s-1) for these two analogs. This novel scaffold therefore represents a possible means to overcome the potential permeability issues of WDR5 ligands that possess highly basic groups like guanidine. The series reported here furthers the understanding of the WDR5 WIN site and functions as a starting point for the development of more potent WDR5 inhibitors that may serve as cancer therapeutics.

Inhibitors of histone acetyltransferases KAT6A/B induce senescence and arrest tumour growth.

Acetylation of histones by lysine acetyltransferases (KATs) is essential for chromatin organization and function1. Among the genes coding for the MYST family of KATs (KAT5-KAT8) are the oncogenes KAT6A (also known as MOZ) and KAT6B (also known as MORF and QKF)2,3. KAT6A has essential roles in normal haematopoietic stem cells4-6 and is the target of recurrent chromosomal translocations, causing acute myeloid leukaemia7,8. Similarly, chromosomal translocations in KAT6B have been identified in diverse cancers8. KAT6A suppresses cellular senescence through the regulation of suppressors of the CDKN2A locus9,10, a function that requires its KAT activity10. Loss of one allele of KAT6A extends the median survival of mice with MYC-induced lymphoma from 105 to 413 days11. These findings suggest that inhibition of KAT6A and KAT6B may provide a therapeutic benefit in cancer. Here we present highly potent, selective inhibitors of KAT6A and KAT6B, denoted WM-8014 and WM-1119. Biochemical and structural studies demonstrate that these compounds are reversible competitors of acetyl coenzyme A and inhibit MYST-catalysed histone acetylation. WM-8014 and WM-1119 induce cell cycle exit and cellular senescence without causing DNA damage. Senescence is INK4A/ARF-dependent and is accompanied by changes in gene expression that are typical of loss of KAT6A function. WM-8014 potentiates oncogene-induced senescence in vitro and in a zebrafish model of hepatocellular carcinoma. WM-1119, which has increased bioavailability, arrests the progression of lymphoma in mice. We anticipate that this class of inhibitors will help to accelerate the development of therapeutics that target gene transcription regulated by histone acetylation.

8-Mercaptoguanine Derivatives as Inhibitors of Dihydropteroate Synthase.

Dihydropteroate synthase (DHPS) is an enzyme of the folate biosynthesis pathway, which catalyzes the formation of 7,8-dihydropteroate (DHPt) from 6-hydroxymethyl-7,8-dihydropterin pyrophosphate (DHPPP) and para-aminobenzoic acid (pABA). DHPS is the long-standing target of the sulfonamide class of antibiotics that compete with pABA. In the wake of sulfa drug resistance, targeting the structurally rigid (and more conserved) pterin site has been proposed as an alternate strategy to inhibit DHPS in wild-type and sulfa drug resistant strains. Following the work on developing pterin-site inhibitors of the adjacent enzyme 6-hydroxymethyl-7,8-dihydropterin pyrophosphokinase (HPPK), we now present derivatives of 8-mercaptoguanine, a fragment that binds weakly within both enzymes, and quantify sub-µm binding using surface plasmon resonance (SPR) to Escherichia coli DHPS (EcDHPS). Eleven ligand-bound EcDHPS crystal structures delineate the structure-activity relationship observed providing a structural framework for the rational development of novel, substrate-envelope-compliant DHPS inhibitors.

Structure-based design and development of functionalized Mercaptoguanine derivatives as inhibitors of the folate biosynthesis pathway enzyme 6-hydroxymethyl-7,8-dihydropterin pyrophosphokinase from Staphylococcus aureus.

6-Hydroxymethyl-7,8-dihydropterin pyrophosphokinase (HPPK), an enzyme from the folate biosynthesis pathway, catalyzes the pyrophosphoryl transfer from ATP to 6-hydroxymethyl-7,8-dihydropterin and is a yet-to-be-drugged antimicrobial target. Building on our previous discovery that 8-mercaptoguanine (8MG) is an inhibitor of Staphylococcus aureus HPPK (SaHPPK), we have identified and characterized the binding of an S8-functionalized derivative (3). X-ray structures of both the SaHPPK/3/cofactor analogue ternary and the SaHPPK/cofactor analogue binary complexes have provided insight into cofactor recognition and key residues that move over 30 Å upon binding of 3, whereas NMR measurements reveal a partially plastic ternary complex active site. Synthesis and binding analysis of a set of analogues of 3 have identified an advanced new lead compound (11) displaying >20-fold higher affinity for SaHPPK than 8MG. A number of these exhibited low micromolar affinity for dihydropteroate synthase (DHPS), the adjacent, downstream enzyme to HPPK, and may thus represent promising new leads to bienzyme inhibitors.

Exploring the chemical space around 8-mercaptoguanine as a route to new inhibitors of the folate biosynthesis enzyme HPPK.

As the second essential enzyme of the folate biosynthetic pathway, the potential antimicrobial target, HPPK (6-hydroxymethyl-7,8-dihydropterin pyrophosphokinase), catalyzes the Mg(2+-)dependant transfer of pyrophosphate from the cofactor (ATP) to the substrate, 6-hydroxymethyl-7,8-dihydropterin. Recently, we showed that 8-mercaptoguanine (8-MG) bound at the substrate site (KD ∼13 µM), inhibited the S. aureus enzyme (SaHPPK) (IC50 ∼ 41 µM), and determined the structure of the SaHPPK/8-MG complex. Here we present the synthesis of a series of guanine derivatives, together with their HPPK binding affinities, as determined by SPR and ITC analysis. The binding mode of the most potent was investigated using 2D NMR spectroscopy and X-ray crystallography. The results indicate, firstly, that the SH group of 8-MG makes a significant contribution to the free energy of binding. Secondly, direct N(9) substitution, or tautomerization arising from N(7) substitution in some cases, leads to a dramatic reduction in affinity due to loss of a critical N(9)-H···Val46 hydrogen bond, combined with the limited space available around the N(9) position. The water-filled pocket under the N(7) position is significantly more tolerant of substitution, with a hydroxyl ethyl 8-MG derivative attached to N(7) (compound 21a) exhibiting an affinity for the apo enzyme comparable to the parent compound (KD ∼ 12 µM). In contrast to 8-MG, however, 21a displays competitive binding with the ATP cofactor, as judged by NMR and SPR analysis. The 1.85 Å X-ray structure of the SaHPPK/21a complex confirms that extension from the N(7) position towards the Mg(2+)-binding site, which affords the only tractable route out from the pterin-binding pocket. Promising strategies for the creation of more potent binders might therefore include the introduction of groups capable of interacting with the Mg(2+) centres or Mg(2+)-binding residues, as well as the development of bitopic inhibitors featuring 8-MG linked to a moiety targeting the ATP cofactor binding site.

Structural studies of the tethered N-terminus of the Alzheimer's disease amyloid-ß peptide.

Alzheimer's disease is the most common form of dementia in humans and is related to the accumulation of the amyloid-ß (Aß) peptide and its interaction with metals (Cu, Fe, and Zn) in the brain. Crystallographic structural information about Aß peptide deposits and the details of the metal-binding site is limited owing to the heterogeneous nature of aggregation states formed by the peptide. Here, we present a crystal structure of Aß residues 1-16 fused to the N-terminus of the Escherichia coli immunity protein Im7, and stabilized with the fragment antigen binding fragment of the anti-Aß N-terminal antibody WO2. The structure demonstrates that Aß residues 10-16, which are not in complex with the antibody, adopt a mixture of local polyproline II-helix and turn type conformations, enhancing cooperativity between the two adjacent histidine residues His13 and His14. Furthermore, this relatively rigid region of Aß (residues, 10-16) appear as an almost independent unit available for trapping metal ions and provides a rationale for the His13-metal-His14 coordination in the Aß1-16 fragment implicated in Aß metal binding. This novel structure, therefore, has the potential to provide a foundation for investigating the effect of metal ion binding to Aß and illustrates a potential target for the development of future Alzheimer's disease therapeutics aimed at stabilizing the N-terminal monomer structure, in particular residues His13 and His14, and preventing Aß metal-binding-induced neurotoxicity.

An efficient high-throughput screening method for MYST family acetyltransferases, a new class of epigenetic drug targets.

Epigenetic aberrations are increasingly regarded as key factors in cancer progression. Recently, deregulation of histone acetyltransferases (HATs) has been linked to several types of cancer. Monocytic leukemia zinc finger protein (MOZ) is a member of the MYST family of HATs, which regulate gene expression in cell proliferation and differentiation. Deregulation of these processes through constitutively active MOZ fusion proteins gives rise to the formation of leukemic stem cells, rendering MOZ an excellent target for treating myeloid leukemia. The authors implemented a hit discovery campaign to identify small-molecule inhibitors of MOZ-HAT activity. They developed a robust, homogeneous assay measuring the acetylation of synthetic histone peptides. In a primary screening campaign testing 243 000 lead-like compounds, they identified inhibitors from several chemical classes. Secondary assays were used to eliminate assay-interfering compounds and prioritize confirmed hits. This study establishes a new high-throughput assay for HAT activity and could provide the foundation for the development of a new class of drugs for the treatment of leukemias.

Engineered antibody intervention strategies for Alzheimer's disease and related dementias by targeting amyloid and toxic oligomers.

Most neurodegenerative disorders, such as Alzheimer's (AD), Parkinson's, Huntington's and Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease, are characterised by the accumulation of insoluble filamentous aggregates known as amyloid. These pathologies share common pathways involving protein aggregation which can lead to fibril formation and amyloid plaques. The 4 kDa Abeta peptide (39-43 amino acids) derived from the proteolysis of the amyloid precursor protein is currently a validated target for therapy in AD. Both active and passive immunisation studies against Abeta are being trialled as potential AD therapeutic approaches. In this study, we have characterised engineered antibody fragments derived from the monoclonal antibody, WO-2 which recognises an epitope in the N-terminal region of Abeta (amino acids 2-8 of Abeta). A chimeric recombinant Fab (rFab) and single chain fragments (scFvs) of WO-2 were constructed and expressed in Escherichia coli. Rationally designed mutants to improve the stability of antibody fragments were also constructed. All antibody formats retained high affinity (K(D) approximately 8 x 10(-9) M) for the Abeta peptide, comparable with the intact parental IgG as measured by surface plasmon resonance. Likewise, all engineered fragments were able to: (i) prevent amyloid fibrillisation, (ii) disaggregate preformed Abeta(1-42) fibrils and (iii) inhibit Abeta(1-42) oligomer-mediated neurotoxicity in vitro as efficiently as the whole IgG molecule. These data indicate that the WO-2 antibody and its fragments have immunotherapeutic potential. The perceived advantages of using small Fab and scFv engineered antibody formats which lack the effector function include more efficient passage across the blood-brain barrier and minimising the risk of triggering inflammatory side reactions. Hence, these recombinant antibody fragments represent attractive candidates and safer formulations of passive immunotherapy for AD.

Kinetic screening of antibody-Im7 conjugates by capture on a colicin E7 DNase domain using optical biosensors.

Antibody generation by phage display and related in vitro display technologies routinely yields large panels of clones detected in primary end-point screenings such as enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA). However, for the development of clinical lead candidates, rapid determination of secondary characteristics such as kinetics and thermodynamics is of nearly equal importance. Surface plasmon resonance-based biosensors are ideal tools for carrying out such high-throughput secondary screenings, allowing preliminary but confident ranking and identification of lead clones. A key feature of these assays is the stable and reversible capture of antibody fragments from crude samples leading to high-resolution kinetic analysis of library outputs. Here we exploit the high-affinity interaction between the naturally occurring nuclease domain of E. coli colicin E7 (DNaseE7) and its cognate partner, the immunity protein 7 (Im7), to develop a ligand capture system suitable for accurate kinetic ranking of library clones. We demonstrate generic applicability for a range of antibody formats: scFv antibodies, diabodies, antigen binding fragments (Fabs), and shark V(NAR) single domain antibodies. The system is adaptable and reproducible, with comparable results achieved for both the Biacore T100 and ProteOn XPR36 array biosensors.

Dimerisation strategies for shark IgNAR single domain antibody fragments.

Immunoglobulin new antigen receptors (IgNARs) are unique single domain antibodies found in the serum of sharks. The individual variable (VNAR) domains bind antigen independently and are candidates for the smallest antibody-based immune recognition units (approximately 13 kDa). Here, we first isolated and sequenced the cDNA of a mature IgNAR antibody from the spotted wobbegong shark (Orectolobus maculatus) and confirmed the independent nature of the VNAR domains by dynamic light scattering. Second, we asked which of the reported antibody fragment dimerisation strategies could be applied to VNAR domains to produce small bivalent proteins with high functional affinity (avidity). In contrast to single chain Fv (scFv) fragments, separate IgNARs could not be linked into a tandem single chain format, with the resulting proteins exhibited only monovalent binding due solely to interaction of the N-terminal domain with antigen. Similarly, incorporation of C-terminal helix-turn-helix (dhlx) motifs, while resulting in efficiently dimerised protein, resulted in only a modest enhancement of affinity, probably due to an insufficiently long hinge region linking the antibody to the dhlx motif. Finally, generation of mutants containing half-cystine residues at the VNAR C-terminus produced dimeric recombinant proteins exhibiting high functional affinity for the target antigens, but at the cost of 50-fold decreased protein expression levels. This study demonstrates the potential for construction of bivalent or bispecific IgNAR-based binding reagents of relatively small size (approximately 26 kDa), equivalent to a monovalent antibody Fv fragment, for formulation into future diagnostic and therapeutic formats.

Engineering of the Escherichia coli Im7 immunity protein as a loop display scaffold.

Protein scaffolds derived from non-immunoglobulin sources are increasingly being adapted and engineered to provide unique binding molecules with a diverse range of targeting specificities. The ColE7 immunity protein (Im7) from Escherichia coli is potentially one such molecule, as it combines the advantages of (i) small size, (ii) stability conferred by a conserved four anti-parallel alpha-helical framework and (iii) availability of variable surface loops evolved to inactivate members of the DNase family of bacterial toxins, forming one of the tightest known protein-protein interactions. Here we describe initial cloning and protein expression of Im7 and its cognate partner the 15 kDa DNase domain of the colicin E7. Both proteins were produced efficiently in E.coli, and their in vitro binding interactions were validated using ELISA and biosensor. In order to assess the capacity of the Im7 protein to accommodate extensive loop region modifications, we performed extensive molecular modelling and constructed a series of loop graft variants, based on transfer of the extended CDR3 loop from the IgG1b12 antibody, which targets the gp120 antigen from HIV-1. Loop grafting in various configurations resulted in chimeric proteins exhibiting retention of the underlying framework conformation, as measured using far-UV circular dichroism spectroscopy. Importantly, there was low but measurable transfer of antigen-specific affinity. Finally, to validate Im7 as a selectable scaffold for the generation of molecular libraries, we displayed Im7 as a gene 3 fusion protein on the surface of fd bacteriophages, the most common library display format. The fusion was successfully detected using an anti-Im7 rabbit polyclonal antibody, and the recombinant phage specifically recognized the immobilized DNase. Thus, Im7 scaffold is an ideal protein display scaffold for the future generation and for the selection of libraries of novel binding proteins.

Selection and affinity maturation of IgNAR variable domains targeting Plasmodium falciparum AMA1.

The new antigen receptor (IgNAR) is an antibody unique to sharks and consists of a disulphide-bonded dimer of two protein chains, each containing a single variable and five constant domains. The individual variable (V(NAR)) domains bind antigen independently, and are candidates for the smallest antibody-based immune recognition units. We have previously produced a library of V(NAR) domains with extensive variability in the CDR1 and CDR3 loops displayed on the surface of bacteriophage. Now, to test the efficacy of this library, and further explore the dynamics of V(NAR) antigen binding we have performed selection experiments against an infectious disease target, the malarial Apical Membrane Antigen-1 (AMA1) from Plasmodium falciparum. Two related V(NAR) clones were selected, characterized by long (16- and 18-residue) CDR3 loops. These recombinant V(NAR)s could be harvested at yields approaching 5mg/L of monomeric protein from the E. coli periplasm, and bound AMA1 with nanomolar affinities (K(D)= approximately 2 x 10(-7) M). One clone, designated 12Y-2, was affinity-matured by error prone PCR, resulting in several variants with mutations mapping to the CDR1 and CDR3 loops. The best of these variants showed approximately 10-fold enhanced affinity over 12Y-2 and was Plasmodium falciparum strain-specific. Importantly, we demonstrated that this monovalent V(NAR) co-localized with rabbit anti-AMA1 antisera on the surface of malarial parasites and thus may have utility in diagnostic applications.

Cytotoxic properties of immunoconjugates containing melittin-like peptide 101 against prostate cancer: in vitro and in vivo studies.

BACKGROUND: Monoclonal antibodies (MAbs) can target therapy to tumours while minimising normal tissue exposure. Efficacy of immunoconjugates containing peptide 101, designed around the first 22 amino acids of bee venom, melittin, to maintain the amphipathic helix, to enhance water solubility, and to increase hemolytic activity, was assessed in nude mice bearing subcutaneous human prostate cancer xenografts. METHODS: Mouse MAbs, J591 and BLCA-38, which recognise human prostate cancer cells, were cross-linked to peptide 101 using SPDP. Tumour-bearing mice were used to compare biodistributions of radiolabeled immunoconjugates and MAb, or received multiple sequential injections of immunoconjugates. Therapeutic efficacy was assessed by delay in tumour growth and increased mouse survival. RESULTS: Radiolabeled immunoconjugates and antibodies showed similar xenograft tropism. Systemic or intratumoural injection of immunoconjugates inhibited tumour growth in mice relative to carrier alone, unconjugated antibody and nonspecific antibody-peptide conjugates and improved survival for treated mice. CONCLUSIONS: Immunoconjugates deliver beneficial effects; further peptide modifications may increase cytotoxicity.

Biodistributions of intact monoclonal antibodies and fragments of BLCA-38, a new prostate cancer directed antibody.

BACKGROUND: Monoclonal antibodies (MAbs) are used for targeting agents to tumours while minimizing normal tissue exposure. METHODS: A new anti-prostate cancer MAb, BLCA-38, was radioiodinated (I125) and assessed for its ability to target subcutaneous human prostate cancer (DU-145) xenografts after systemic intraperitoneal administration. For comparison, the profile of J591 MAb (now in clinical trial) against LNCaP-LN3 tumours was examined. Biodistribution profiles were obtained at various times, by assessing injected dose/gram (%ID/g) and xenograft to blood (X/B) ratios. Microautoradiography of xenografts was performed. After conjugation with a melittin peptide toxin, the profiles of BLCA-38 and J591 were compared with that of an irrelevant antibody, DS-1. RESULTS: Xenograft localization by 125I-labeled BLCA-38 and J591 MAbs to their relevant antigen-positive tumors was comparable, and there was no unusual localization in nontumour tissues. F(ab')2 and Fab fragments gave improved X/B ratios, but the %ID/g xenograft was decreased and they accumulated in kidneys, bladder and stomach. In contrast, the conjugates of irrelevant antibody showed no tumour targeting. Microautoradiography showed more tumour accumulation of MAbs than F(ab')2s or Fabs. CONCLUSIONS: BLCA-38 can target prostate cancer in vivo almost as effectively as J591. Given that J591 is used clinically, BLCA-38, which targets a different antigen, has potential for radioimmunoscintigraphy and for therapeutic targeting of prostate cancer.

Isolation and characterization of an IgNAR variable domain specific for the human mitochondrial translocase receptor Tom70.

The new antigen receptor (IgNAR) from sharks is a disulphide bonded dimer of two protein chains, each containing one variable and five constant domains, and functions as an antibody. In order to assess the antigen-binding capabilities of isolated IgNAR variable domains (VNAR), we have constructed an in vitro library incorporating synthetic CDR3 regions of 15-18 residues in length. Screening of this library against the 60 kDa cytosolic domain of the 70 kDa outer membrane translocase receptor from human mitochondria (Tom70) resulted in one dominant antigen-specific clone (VNAR 12F-11) after four rounds of in vitro selection. VNAR 12F-11 was expressed into the Escherichia coli periplasm and purified by anti-FLAG affinity chromatography at yields of 3 mg x L(-1). Purified protein eluted from gel filtration columns as a single monomeric protein and CD spectrum analysis indicated correct folding into the expected beta-sheet conformation. Specific binding to Tom70 was demonstrated by ELISA and BIAcore (Kd = 2.2 +/- 0.31 x 10(-9) m-1) indicating that these VNAR domains can be efficiently displayed as bacteriophage libraries, and selected against target antigens with an affinity and stability equivalent to that obtained for other single domain antibodies. As an initial step in producing 'intrabody' variants of 12F-11, the impact of modifying or removing the conserved immunoglobulin intradomain disulphide bond was assessed. High affinity binding was only retained in the wild-type protein, which combined with our inability to affinity mature 12F-11, suggests that this particular VNAR is critically dependent upon precise CDR loop conformations for its binding affinity.

Single-chain Fv multimers of the anti-neuraminidase antibody NC10: the residue at position 15 in the V(L) domain of the scFv-0 (V(L)-V(H)) molecule is primarily responsible for formation of a tetramer-trimer equilibrium.

Single-chain variable fragment of the murine monoclonal antibody NC10 specific to influenza virus N9 neuraminidase, joined directly in the V(L) to V(H) orientation (scFv-0), forms an equilibrium mixture of tetramer and trimer with the tetramer as the preferred multimeric species. In contrast, the V(H)-V(L) isomer was previously shown to exist exclusively as a trimer. Computer-generated trimeric and tetrameric scFv models, based on the refined crystal structure for NC10 Fv domain, were constructed and used to evaluate factors influencing the transition between V(L)-V(H) trimer and tetramer. These model structures indicated that steric restrictions between loops spanning amino acid residues L55-L59 and L13-L17 from the two adjacent V(L) domains within the V(L)-V(H) trimer were responsible for four scFv-0 molecules assembling to form a tetramer. In particular, leucine at position L15 and glutamate at position L57 appeared to interfere significantly with each other. To minimize this steric interference, the site-directed mutagenesis technique was used to construct several NC10 scFv-0 clones with mutations at these positions. Size-exclusion chromatographic analyses revealed that several of these mutations resulted in the production of NC10 scFv-0 proteins with significantly altered tetramer-trimer equilibrium ratios. In particular, introduction of a polar residue, such as asparagine or threonine, at position L15 generated a highly stable NC10 scFv-0 trimer.