Quantitative analysis of the impact of climate variability and human activities on grassland productivity of the Qilian Mountain National Park, China.

To quantitatively analyze the impact of climate variability and human activities on grassland productivity of China's Qilian Mountain National Park, this study used Carnegic-Ames-Stanford Approach model (CASA) and Integrated Vegetation model improved by the Comprehensive and Sequential Classification System (CSCS) to assess the trends of grassland NPP from 2000 to 2015, the residual trend analysis method was used to quantify the impact of human activities and climate change on the grassland based on the NPP changes. The actual grassland NPP accumulation mainly occurred in June, July and August (autumn); the actual NPP showed a fluctuating upward trend with an average increase of 2.2 g C·m-2 a-1, while the potential NPP increase of 1.6 g C·m-2 a-1 and human-induced NPP decreased of 0.5 g C·m-2 a-1. The annual temperature showed a fluctuating upward trend with an average increase of 0.1°C 10a-1, but annual precipitation showed a fluctuating upward trend with an average annual increase of 1.3 mm a-1 from 2000 to 2015. The area and NPP of grassland degradation caused by climate variability was significantly greater than that caused by human activities and mainly distributed in the northwest and central regions, but area and NPP of grassland restored caused by human activities was significantly greater than that caused by climate variability and mainly distributed in the southeast regions. In conclusion, grassland in Qilian Mountain National Park showed a trend of degradation based on distribution area, but showed a trend of restoration based on actual NPP. Climate variability was the main cause of grassland degradation in the northwestern region of study area, and restoration of grassland in the eastern region was the result of the combined effects of human activities and climate variability. Under global climate change, the establishment of Qilian Mountain National Park was of great significance to the grassland's protection and the grasslands ecological restoration that have been affected by humans.

Response of soil stoichiometric characteristics to climatic factors in temperate steppe of Longzhong region, China.

We explored the relationship between climate factors (mean annual precipitation and mean annual temperature) and the contents and stoichiometry of soil carbon (C), nitrogen (N), and phosphorus (P) at different soil depths (0-5, 5-10, 10-20, 20-30, 30-50, 50-70, and 70-100 cm) temperate steppe of Longzhong. The results showed with the increases of soil depth, soil C, N contents, C:P, and N:P gradually decreased from 21.88 g·kg-1, 1.84 g·kg-1, 33.6 and 3.1 to 7.67 g·kg-1, 0.59 g·kg-1, 12.5 and 1.0, respectively. Soil C:N showed an increasing trend from 12.2 to 13.9, while soil P content remained stable with an average of 0.61 g·kg-1. Soil C, N, C:P, and N:P were significantly positively correlated with mean annual precipitation and negatively correlated with mean annual temperature. Soil P content and C:N were not correlated with mean annual precipita-tion and mean annual temperature. With the increases of soil depth, the total explanatory power of the changes in soil C, N and P contents by mean annual precipitation and mean annual temperature decreased and then increased, and that in soil C:P, N:P and C:N did not change significantly. The changes of soil C, N and P contents on the temperature steppe were mainly influenced by mean annual precipitation. The effects and relative contributions of mean annual precipitation and mean annual temperature on the variations of soil nutrient contents and stoichiometry of C, N and P differed at different soil depths.

Characteristics of soil C:N:P stoichiometry and enzyme activities in different grassland types in Qilian Mountain nature reserve-Tibetan Plateau.

This research was designed to explore the variation characteristics of soil C:N:P stoichiometry and enzyme activity in the Qilian Mountains different grassland types. Thus, 7 grassland types (Upland meadow: UM, Alpine meadow: AM, Temperate steppe: ST, Alpine steppe: AS, Temperate Desert Steppe: TDS, Temperate Desert: TD, Alpine desert: AD) of Qilian Natural Reserve were selected to analyze the variation characteristics of soil enzyme activities and stoichiometry of different grassland types and its relationship with environmental factors. The study indicated that the C/N, C/P, and N/P of different grasslands ranged from 5.08 to 17.35, 2.50 to 72.29, and 0.53 to 4.02.The ranking of different types grassland for the C/N was TS ≥ AM ≥ UM ≥ AS ≥ TDS > AD > TD, and the changing pattern of C/P and N/P is similar to that of C/N. The ranking of different types grassland for the urease enzyme activity was UM ≈AS > AD ≈TDS ≈TS ≈AM > TD, and TS ≈AM ≈UM ≈AS ≈AD > TDS > TD for alkaline phosphatase enzyme activity, and AS ≈AM ≈TS ≈TDS≥UM ≥TD ≈AD for catalase enzyme activity. Based on N/P ratio and RDA analysis, nitrogen was the main factor limiting the grassland productivity, and pH, TN, SOC, Richness index and Simpson diversity index were the main environmental factors affecting the soil C:N:P stoichiometry and enzyme activities. Cluster analysis showed that 7 grassland types were clustered into three categories. In conclusion, the stoichiometric characteristics and soil enzyme activities of different grasslands vary with grassland types. Nitrogen was the main factor limiting the grasslands productivity, and pH, TN, SOC, Richness index and Simpson diversity index were the main environmental factors affecting the soil C:N:P stoichiometry and enzyme activities, and the grassland Qilian Mountain can be managed in the ecological district according to the clustering results. The results of this study can provide data support and theoretical guidance for the scientific management and ecological protection of grassland in Qilian Mountains Reserve.

Soil fertility evaluation and spatial distribution of grasslands in Qilian Mountains Nature Reserve of eastern Qinghai-Tibetan Plateau.

The study assessed the overall soil characteristics of grasslands on Qilian Mountains and rated the soil nutrient status with classification standard of the second national soil survey of China. Nemerow index method was used to evaluate the soil fertility of different grassland types. GIS was used to analyze the spatial distribution of the soil nutrients and provided a database for the grassland's ecological protection and restoration. The study graded the soil organic matter (SOM), total N, and available K at level 2 (high) or above for most regions, available soil-P at level 4, while the soil bulk density, total porosity and pH were 0.77-1.32 g cm-3, 35.36-58.83% and 7.63-8.54, respectively. The rank of comprehensive soil fertility index was temperate steppe (TS) > alpine meadow (AM) > alpine steppe (AS) >upland meadow (UM) >alpine desert (AD)> lowland meadow (LM)> temperate desert steppe (TDS)> temperate desert (TD). The areas with high, medium and low soil fertility accounted for 63.19%, 34.24% and 2.57% of the total grassland area. Soil fertility of different grassland types had different main limiting factors, for instance, the pH, total N and SOM were the main factors limiting soil fertility in LM, while pH and available P were the main factors limiting soil fertility in UM, AM, TS and AS. In summary, the grassland soil fertility was generally at the mid-upper level, and the main limiting factors were found in the different types of the grasslands and their spatial distributions were figured out. Our findings also indicated that the typical grasslands and meadows may require phosphorus application, while for desert grasslands, both nitrogen and phosphorus were required to improve their comprehensive soil fertility and grassland productivity.

A Strain Distribution Sensing System for Bone-Implant Interfaces Based on Digital Speckle Pattern Interferometry.

This paper aims to provide an effective measurement method for the distribution of deformations and strains focusing on the response to external loading of bone-implant interfaces. To achieve this target, a novel speckle interference imaging method is proposed by introducing phosphate buffer saline medium, in which the samples were completely placed into a phosphate buffer saline solution medium to stable the water molecules. The stability of interferometry imaging is analyzed by using the concepts of co-occurrence matrix and moment of inertia. A series of experiments to measure load-driven deformation and strain in the bone-implant interface was carried out, and the experiments results were analyzed and discussed. It shows that the proposed method is feasible and effective for the no-contact strain measurements of biomaterials in a physiological condition. The proposed strain distribution sensing system will contribute to evaluating computational simulations and improving selection of implant designs and materials.

Color temperature tunable phosphor-coated white LEDs with excellent photometric and colorimetric performances.

The optimization model for the luminous efficacy (LE) of a correlated color temperature (CCT) tunable phosphor-coated white LED (pc-WLED) was developed. The optimal pc-WLEDs with green (498.7 nm, 70.0 nm), yellow (569.2 nm, 83.4 nm), and red (638.7 nm, 70.0 nm) phosphors excited by a blue chip (442.4 nm, 35.0 nm) could achieve a color fidelity index (Rf) of 97 and LEs of 118-127 lm/W at CCTs of 2700-6500 K for a radiant efficiency of the blue chip of 60% and a quantum efficiency of a phosphor layer of 90%. Compared to quantum dot WLEDs (QD-WLEDs), the LEs of the optimal pc-WLEDs are lower only by 2.7%-4.8% than the optimal QD-WLEDs at CCTs of 2700-6500 K, so that QD-WLEDs have only a slight advantage in terms of luminous efficacy for excellent color rendition. Four real pc-WLEDs with Rfs of 96-97 and LEs of 93-106 lm/W at CCTs of 3037 K, 4081 K, 4951 K, and 6443 K were demonstrated.

Photometric optimization and comparison of hybrid white LEDs for mesopic road lighting.

The photometric model for the mesopic luminous efficacy (LEm) of hybrid white LEDs, including the radiant efficiency of both blue and red LEDs as well as the overall quantum efficiency of the phosphor layer or the quantum dot (QD) film, was developed. The optimal spectral parameters of integrated with quantum dots (QD-WLED), phosphor-converted white LED (pc-WLED) with red LEDs instead of red phosphor (pc/R WLED) for both color fidelity index (Rf) and color rendering index (Ra) above 70, 80, and 90 at correlated color temperatures of 2700-6500 K were obtained by maximizing the average LEm of four road lighting standards. By comparing among pc-WLED, QD-WLED, and pc/R WLED, it was suggested that the pc/R WLEDs make strong candidates for mesopic road lighting. The requirements of the overall efficiency of QD film were presented if the QD-WLEDs were competitive to the pc-WLEDs. Finally, the three real pc/R WLEDs with both Rf and Ra about 80 at CCTs of 2982 K, 4560 K, and 5683 K were demonstrated.

Spectral optimization of phosphor-coated white LED for road lighting based on the mesopic limited luminous efficacy and IES color fidelity index.

The spectral optimization of phosphor-coated white LED (pc-WLED) with green and orange phosphors excited by blue chip for road lighting was investigated based on the mesopic limited luminous efficacy (LLEm) and IES (the Illuminating Engineering Society of North America) color fidelity index (Rf). The average LLEm of four road lighting standards of the USA and the UK decreases as Rf increases, but the optimal scotopic/photopic ratio increases slightly with Rf increases for a given correlated color temperature (CCT). The average LLEm could reach the highest of 339 lm/W for Rf=70, 326 lm/W for Rf=80, and 309 lm/W for Rf=90 at CCT=5000 K. Six real pc-WLEDs with different Rf at CCT≈5000 K and with Rf≈70 at different CCT were demonstrated. Compared with current pc-WLEDs with yttrium aluminum garnet doped with Ce3+ (YAG:Ce3+) phosphors, the average LLEm of six demonstrated pc-WLEDs will be over 5.0% and above. So, it is suggested that the road lighting should choose pc-WLEDs with high efficiency green phosphors (520-530 nm) instead of YAG:Ce3+ phosphors.

Optimal spectra of white LED integrated with quantum dots for mesopic vision.

The spectral optimization model for limited mesopic luminous efficacy (LLEm) of white LED integrated with quantum dots (QD-WLED) consisting of a blue chip, green, yellow and red quantum dots, including down-conversion energy loss, was developed under constraint of designated color rendering properties. The optimal spectra of QD-WLEDs with CRI ≥ 70 and CQS ≥ 60 as well as CRI ≥ 85 and CQS ≥ 85 for mesopic vision, photometric and colorimetric performances at correlated color temperature of 2700 K to 45000 K, as well as the LLEms of optimal QD-WLEDs for four road lighting standards of the USA and the UK were presented. These results suggest that QD-WLEDs make strong candidates for replacing conventional light sources in the future as they enhance the vision quality in the road lighting in addition to energy saving.

Study on the correlations between color rendering indices and the spectral power distributions: comment.

This is a comment on a recently published paper by Lin at el. [Optics Express 22(S4), A1029 (2014)]. The original article suffers three fatal defects as follow: (1) Some peak distortions are not present in the spectral loss simulation due to large wavelength step; (2) The correlations between the modulated deviations (MDs) and the color rendering indices (CRIs) are poor at high CRI region; (3) How to determine the optimal peak wavelengths of multi-peak LED in the guideline for the CRI optimization does not make any statement. There are poor correlations between the MDs and CRIs at high CRI region.

Spectral optimization of color temperature tunable white LEDs with excellent color rendering and luminous efficacy.

The optimization model of limited luminous efficacy (LLE) for correlated color temperature (CCT) tunable phosphor-coated white light-emitting diodes (pc-W LEDs) consisting of blue chips, green and yellow phosphors, and red chips, including downconversion energy loss, has been developed under the constraint of a designated color-rendering index (CRI) and a special CRI of R9 for strong red. The optimal spectra of pc-W LEDs are obtained with a nonlinear program for maximizing LLE under conditions of both CRI and R9 above 90, 95, and 98 at CCTs of 2700-6500 K. The pc-W LEDs with LLE>301 lm/W for both CRI and R9 above 90, LLE>290 lm/W for both CRI and R9 above 95, and LLE>276 lm/W for both CRI and R9 above 98 could be achieved at CCTs of 2700-6500 K. The recommended peak wavelengths and full widths at half-maximum (FWHMs) for the current LEDs and phosphors and their photometric and colorimetric performances are presented.

Color temperature tunable white-light LED cluster with extrahigh color rendering index.

The correlated color temperature (CCT) tunable white-light LED cluster with extrahigh color rendering property has been found by simulation and fabricated, which consists of three WW LEDs (CCT = 3183 K), one red LED (634.1 nm), one green LED (513.9 nm), and one blue LED (456.2 nm). The experimental results show that this cluster can realize the CCT tunable white-lights with a color rendering index (CRI) above 93, special CRI R9 for strong red above 90, average value of the special CRIs of R9 to R12 for the four saturated colors (red, yellow, green, and blue) above 83, and luminous efficacies above 70 lm/W at CCTs of 2719 K to 6497 K.

Spectral optimization of the color temperature tunable white light-emitting diode (LED) cluster consisting of direct-emission blue and red LEDs and a diphosphor conversion LED.

The correlated color temperature (CCT) tunable white-light LED cluster, which consists of direct-emission blue and red LEDs as well as phosphor-conversion (PC) LEDs packaged by combining green and orange phosphors with a blue LED die, has been obtained by nonlinear program for maximizing luminous efficacy (LE) of radiation (LER) under conditions of both color rendering index (CRI) and special CRI of R9 for strong red above 90 at CCTs of 2700 K to 6500 K. The optimal peak wavelengths of blue LED, red LED, blue LED die, green and orange phosphors are 465 nm, 628 nm, 452 nm, 530 nm and 586 nm, respectively. The real CCT tunable PC/red/blue LED cluster with CRIs of 90~96, R9s of 90~96, CQSs of 89~94, LERs of 303~358 lm/W, and LEs of 105~119 lm/W has been realized at CCTs of 2722 K to 6464 K. The deviation of the peak wavelength should be less than ± 5 nm for blue LED die, ± 1 nm for red LED, and ± 2 nm for blue LED to achieve the PC/R/B LED cluster with high optical performance.

Optimal spectra of white light-emitting diodes using quantum dot nanophosphors.

The relationship and trade-offs between the performance parameters including color rendering index (CRI), luminous efficacy of radiation (LER) and correlated color temperature (CCT) of white LEDs using quantum dot nanophosphors (QD-WLEDs) are investigated for CRI ≥ 80 and LER ≥ 300 lm/W at 1500 K ≤ CCT ≤ 6500 K. The optimal spectra of QD-WLEDs with CCTs of 2700-6500 K have been obtained with a nonlinear program for maximizing LER under conditions of both CRI and a special CRI of R9 strong red above 90 or 95. Furthermore, high performance QD-WLEDs with LER = 381 lm/W for CRI = R9 = 90 and LER = 371 lm/W for CRI = R9 = 95 at CCT = 3000 K, with LER = 361 lm/W for CRI = R9 = 90 and LER = 352 lm/W for CRI = R9 = 95 at CCT = 4500 K, and with LER = 346 lm/W for CRI = R9 = 90 and LER = 338 lm/W for CRI = R9 = 95 at CCT = 5700 K could be achieved. The LERs of high performance white LEDs using QD nanophosphors increase by 13% to 32% compared with that of white LEDs using traditional phosphors.

Warm-white light-emitting diodes integrated with colloidal quantum dots for high luminous efficacy and color rendering: comment.

This is a comment on a previous Letter [Opt. Lett.35, 3372 (2010)]. The chromaticity coordinates of nanocrystal quantum dot (NQD)-integrated WLED1, WLED2, and WLED3 are out of the range of the chromaticity tolerance quadrangles of white light sources. So these NQD WLEDs do not satisfy the requirements recommended for general lighting with solid-state lighting products to ensure high-quality white light. Furthermore, correlated color temperatures of WLED2 and WLED3 should be 2682 and 2527 K, respectively, according to the chromaticity coordinates of WLED2 and WLED3 at 12 mA, not 2781 and 2390 K. The NQD-integrated WLED1 and WLED2 located in tolerance quadrangles are simulated by the changing spectral power of green-, yellow-, and orange-emitting NQDs. The simulation results are presented.

Optimal spectra of the phosphor-coated white LEDs with excellent color rendering property and high luminous efficacy of radiation.

A model for spectra of the phosphor-coated white LED (p-W LED) with a blue chip, a red chip, and green and yellow phosphors is presented. The optimal spectra of p-W LEDs with correlated color temperatures (CCTs) of 2700-6500 K have been obtained with a nonlinear program for maximizing luminous efficacy of radiation (LER) under conditions of both color-rendering indices (CRIs) and special CRIs of R9 strong red above 98. The simulation results show that p-W LEDs with one InGaN blue (450 nm) chip, one AlGaInP red (634 nm) chip, and green (507 nm) and yellow (580 nm) silicate phosphors can realize white lights with CRIs of about 98 and special CRIs of R9 for strong red above 98. The average of the special CRIs R9 to R12 for the four saturated colors (red, yellow, green, and blue) is above 95. R13 for the skin of women's faces at about 100, as well as LERs above 296 lm/W at CCTs of 2700-6500 K. LERs of excellent CRI p-W LEDs with one InGaN blue chip, one AlGaInP red chip, and green and yellow silicate phosphors increased by 19-49% when compared with that of excellent CRI p-W LEDs with one InGaN blue chip and green and yellow silicate phosphors, as well as red nitride phosphor.

White-light LED clusters with high color rendering.

We established a model for spectra of LEDs at different drive currents. The simulation program of color rendering of white-light LED clusters has been developed, according to the principle of additive color mixture. The experimental results show that white/red LED clusters can realize color temperature untunable white light with a high color rendering index and high luminous efficacy and that neutral-white/red/blue LED clusters can realize color temperature tunable white light with a high color rendering index and high luminous efficacy.

Color temperature tunable white-light light-emitting diode clusters with high color rendering index.

A model for LED spectra at different drive currents is established. The simulation program of color rendering of a white-light LED cluster is developed according to the principle of additive color mixtures. The program can predict not only the spectral power distribution, chromaticity coordinates, correlated color temperature (CCT), and color rendering index (CRI), but also the drive currents of LEDs, luminous flux, input power, and luminous efficacy of white-light LED clusters. Three types of CCT tunable white-light LED clusters [warm-white/red/green/blue (WW/R/G/B), neutral-white (NW)/R/G/B, and cool-white/R/amber/G clusters] with high CRI are found by simulation analysis and realized in our laboratory. The experimental results show that the WW/R/G/B cluster can realize CCT tunable white light with high CRIs (above 90) but lower luminous efficacies (below 65 lm/W), and that the NW/R/G/B cluster can realize CCT tunable white light with high CRIs (above 86), as well as high luminous efficacies (above 64 lm/W).