Influence of Stress on Liver Circadian Physiology. A Study in Rainbow Trout, Oncorhynchus mykiss, as Fish Model.

In vertebrates stress negatively affects body homeostasis and triggers a battery of metabolic responses, with liver playing a key role. This organ responds with altered metabolism, leading the animal to cope with the stress situation, which involves carbohydrate and lipid mobilization. However, metabolism among other physiological functions is under circadian control within the liver. Then, metabolic homeostasis at system level involves circadian timing systems within tissues and cells, and collaborate with each other. During chronic stress, cortisol maintains the liver metabolic response by modulating carbohydrate- and lipid-related metabolism. Stress also disrupts the circadian oscillator within the liver in mammals, whereas little information is available in other vertebrates, such as fish. To raise the complexity of this process, other candidates may mediate in such effect of stress. In fact, sirtuin1, a link between cellular sensing of energy status and circadian clocks, participates in the response to stress in mammals, but no information is available in fish. Considering the role played by liver in providing energy for the animal to deal with an adverse situation, and the existence of a circadian oscillator within this tissue, jeopardized liver circadian physiology during stress exposure might be expected. Whether the physiological response to stress is a well conserved process through the phylogeny and the mechanisms involved in such response is a question that remains to be elucidated. Then, we provide information at this respect in mammals and show comparable results in rainbow trout as fish animal model. Similar to that in mammals, stress triggers a series of responses in fish that leads the animal to cope with the adverse situation. Stress influences liver physiology in fish, affecting carbohydrate and lipid metabolism-related parameters, and the circadian oscillator as well. In a similar way than that of mammals different mediators participate in the response of liver circadian physiology to stress in fish. Among them, we confirm for the teleost rainbow trout a role of nuclear receptors (rev-erbß), cortisol, and sirt1. However, further research is needed to evaluate the independent effect of each one, or the existence of any interaction among them.

Game Perspective-Taking Effects on Players' Behavioral Intention, Attitudes, Subjective Norms, and Self-Efficacy to Help Immigrants: The Case of "Papers, Please".

This study expands on game character perspective-taking effects on political opinions while controlling for players' social dominance orientation or inclination for inequality among social groups. Random assignment to play a game as an immigration inspector decreased intention, subjective norms, and self-efficacy to help immigrants relative to baseline scores. The scores of participants randomly assigned to play a game similar in style but instead featuring the role of a newspaper editor remained unchanged. Within-subjects effects implied that baseline reductions in intention, subjective norms, and self-efficacy to help immigrants were solely attributed to playing games as game immigration inspectors. The study provides initial evidence that taking on the perspective of game characters can influence players' opinions about political issues, such as immigration.

Involvement of cortisol and sirtuin1 during the response to stress of hypothalamic circadian system and food intake-related peptides in rainbow trout, Oncorhynchus mykiss.

Stress is conditioning animal welfare by negatively affecting a wide range of physiological and behavioral functions. This may be applied to circadian physiology and food intake. Cortisol, the stress-related hormone, may mediate such effect of stress, but other indirect mediators might be considered, such as sirtuin1. Then, either the independent modulatory effect or the existence of any interaction between mediators may be responsible. The circadian system is the main modulator of several integrative mechanisms at both central and peripheral levels that are rhythmically presented, thus influencing different processes such as food intake. In this way, food intake is controlled by the circadian system, as demonstrated by the persistence of such rhythms of food intake in the absence of environmental external cues. Our study aimed to evaluate the daily profile of hypothalamic mRNA abundance of circadian clock genes (clock1a, bmal1, per1 and rev-erbß-like), and food intake regulators (crf, pomc-a1, cart, and npy) in rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss), the impact of stress on such rhythms, and the involvement of cortisol and sirtuin1 as mediators. Four cohorts of trout were subjected to 1) normal stocking density (control group), 2) high stocking density for 72 hours (stress group), 3) normal stocking density and implanted with mifepristone, a glucocorticoid receptors antagonist, and 4) mifepristone administered and stressed for 72 hours. Fish from each group were sampled every 4-h along the 24-h LD cycle, and cortisol, glucose and lactate plasma levels were evaluated. Hypothalamic mRNA abundance of clock genes, food intake regulators, glucocorticoid receptors and sirtuin1 were qPCR assayed. Our results reveal the impact of stress on most of the genes assayed, but different mechanisms appear to be involved. The rhythm of clock genes displayed decreased amplitude and averaged levels in stressed trout, with no changes of the acrophase being observed. This effect was not prevented by mifepristone. On the contrary, the effect of stress on the daily profile of crf, pomc-a1, and npy was totally prevented by mifepristone administration. Accordingly, cortisol appears to mainly mediate the effect of stress on food intake regulators through binding to specific glucocorticoid receptors within trout hypothalamus, whereas sirtuin1 is apparently mediating such effects on the circadian system in the same brain region. Further research must be performed to clarify those mechanisms through which stress influences food intake and the circadian oscillator within the same brain region, hypothalamus, in rainbow trout, and the interaction among them all.

Influence of light and food on the circadian clock in liver of rainbow trout, Oncorhynchus mykiss.

Several reports support the existence of multiple peripheral oscillators in fish, which may be able to modulate the rhythmic functions developed by those tissues hosting them. Thus, a circadian oscillator has been proposed to be located within fish liver. In this vertebrate group, the role played by the circadian system in regulating metabolic processes in liver is mostly unknown. We, therefore investigated the liver of rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) as a potential element participating in the regulation of circadian rhythms in fish by hosting a functional circadian oscillator. The presence and expression pattern of main components of the circadian molecular machinery (clock1a, bmal1, per1 and rev-erbß-like) were assessed. Furthermore, the role of environmental cues such as light and food, and their interaction in order to modulate the circadian oscillator was also assessed by exposing animals to constant conditions (absence of light for 48 h, and/or a 4 days fasting period). Our results demonstrate the existence of a functional circadian oscillator within trout liver, as demonstrated by significant rhythms of all clock genes assessed, independently of the environmental conditions studied. In addition, the daily profile of mRNA abundance of clock genes is influenced by both light (mainly clock1a and per1) and food (rev-erbß-like), which is indicative of an interaction between both synchronizers. Our results point to rev-erbß-like as possible mediator between the influence of light and food on the circadian oscillator within trout liver, since its daily profile is influenced by both light and food, thus affecting that of bmal1.

Daily rhythms in activity and mRNA abundance of enzymes involved in glucose and lipid metabolism in liver of rainbow trout, Oncorhynchus mykiss. Influence of light and food availability.

The present research aimed to investigate in a model of teleost fish (rainbow trout) the existence of daily changes in activity and mRNA abundance of several proteins involved in major pathways of carbohydrate and lipid metabolism in liver, and to test whether or not both the light-dark cycle and food availability might influence such rhythms. For this purpose, four cohorts of animals previously adapted to normal housing conditions (12L:12D; Lights on at ZT0; feeding time at ZT2) were subjected to: normal conditions (LD); 48-h constant darkness (DD); 96-h food deprivation (LD + Fasting); or constant darkness and food deprivation (DD + Fasting) respectively. After such time periods, fish were sacrificed and sampled every 4-h on the following 24-h period (ZT/CT0, 4, 8, 12, 16, 20 and 0'). Our results reveal that cortisol and all the analysed genes (gk, pepck, g6pase, pk, glut2, hoad and fas) exhibited well defined daily rhythms, which persisted even in the absence of light and/or food indicating the endogenous nature of such rhythms. Even when the variations of enzyme activities were not significant, their rhythms mostly paralleled those of the respective gene expression. The rhythms of mRNA abundance were apparently dependent on the presence of food, but the light/dark cycle also influenced such rhythms. Since cortisol does not appear to be mainly involved in generating such daily rhythms in liver, alternative mechanisms might be involved, such as a direct interaction between metabolism and the circadian system.

Short-term time course of liver metabolic response to acute handling stress in rainbow trout, Oncorhynchus mykiss.

To elucidate the short-term time-course of liver metabolic response in rainbow trout to acute handling stress we subjected rainbow trout to 5min chasing and obtained samples 0 to 480min post-stress. Levels of cortisol, glucose and lactate were measured in plasma, whereas metabolite levels, enzyme activities, mRNA abundance of parameters related to energy metabolism, and glucocorticoid receptors were assessed in liver. Acute stress affected many parameters related to energy metabolism, with most of them turning back to normal levels after 480min. In general, the present results support the existence of two stages in the short-term time-course of metabolic response to handling stress. A first stage occurring few minutes post-stress (15-45min), was characterized by increased mobilization of liver glycogen resulting in increased production of endogenous glucose, reduced use of exogenous glucose and reduced lipogenic potential. A second stage, occurring 60-120min post-stress onwards was characterized by the recovery of liver glycogen levels, the increased capacity of liver for releasing glucose, and the recovery of lipogenic capacity whereas no changes were noted in gluconeogenic potential, which probably needs longer time periods to become enhanced.