Promotion of a Mediterranean Diet Alters Constipation Symptoms and Fecal Calprotectin in People with Parkinson's Disease: A Randomized Controlled Trial.

Parkinson's disease is associated with gastrointestinal (GI) dysfunction, including constipation symptoms and abnormal intestinal permeability and inflammation. A Mediterranean diet (MediDiet) may aid in disease management. This parallel, randomized, controlled trial in people with Parkinson's (PwP) and constipation symptoms compared a MediDiet against standard of care on change in constipation symptoms, dietary intake, and fecal zonulin and calprotectin concentrations as markers of intestinal permeability and inflammation, respectively. Participants were randomized to either standard of care for constipation (control; n = 17, 65.1 ± 2.2 years) or a MediDiet plus standard of care (n = 19, 68.8 ± 1.4 years) for 8 weeks. Constipation scores decreased with both interventions (p < 0.01), but changes from baseline were not different between groups (MediDiet, -0.5 [-1.0, 0]; control, -0.8 [-1.0, 0.2]; median [25th, 75th]; p = 0.60). The MediDiet group had a higher intake of dietary fiber at week 4 than the control group (13.1 ± 0.7 g/1000 kcal vs. 9.8 ± 0.7 g/1000 kcal; p < 0.001). No differences in fecal zonulin were observed between groups (p = 0.33); however, fecal calprotectin tended to be lower in the MediDiet group at week 8 (45.8 ± 15.1 µg/g vs. 93.9 ± 26.8 µg/g; p = 0.05). The MediDiet and standard interventions reduced constipation symptoms; however, the MediDiet provided additional benefit of increased dietary fiber intake and less intestinal inflammation.

Interactive mobile application for Parkinson's disease deep brain stimulation (MAP DBS): An open-label, multicenter, randomized, controlled clinical trial.

INTRODUCTION: Deep brain stimulation (DBS) is an effective treatment for Parkinson's disease (PD), but its efficacy is tied to DBS programming, which is often time consuming and burdensome for patients, caregivers, and clinicians. Our aim is to test whether the Mobile Application for PD DBS (MAP DBS), a clinical decision support system, can improve programming. METHODS: We conducted an open-label, 1:1 randomized, controlled, multicenter clinical trial comparing six months of SOC standard of care (SOC) to six months of MAP DBS-aided programming. We enrolled patients between 30 and 80 years old who received DBS to treat idiopathic PD at six expert centers across the United States. The primary outcome was time spent DBS programming and secondary outcomes measured changes in motor symptoms, caregiver strain and medication requirements. RESULTS: We found a significant reduction in initial visit time (SOC: 43.8 ± 28.9 min n = 37, MAP DBS: 27.4 ± 13.0 min n = 35, p = 0.001). We did not find a significant difference in total programming time between the groups over the 6-month study duration. MAP DBS-aided patients experienced a significantly larger reduction in UPDRS III on-medication scores (-7.0 ± 7.9) compared to SOC (-2.7 ± 6.9, p = 0.01) at six months. CONCLUSION: MAP DBS was well tolerated and improves key aspects of DBS programming time and clinical efficacy.

Suppression of Axial Tremor by Deep Brain Stimulation in Patients with Essential Tremor: Effects on Gait and Balance Measures.

Background: Deep brain stimulation (DBS) of the ventralis intermedius (VIM) nucleus of the thalamus has been successful in mitigating upper limb tremor, but the effect on gait and balance performance is unclear. Here, we aim to examine the effectiveness of VIM DBS on stride length variability, sway path length, and task-relevant tremor of various body segments in essential tremor (ET). Methods: Seventeen ET individuals treated with DBS (ET DBS) and 17 age-and sex-matched healthy controls (HC) performed a postural balance and overground walking task. In separate and consecutive visits, ET DBS performed gait and balance tasks with DBS ON or OFF. The main outcome measures were sway path length, stride length variability, and tremor quantified from upper limb, lower limb, upper and lower trunk (axial) during the gait and balance tasks. Results: With DBS OFF, ET DBS exhibited significantly greater stride length variability, sway path length, and tremor during gait and balance task relative to HC. Relative to DBS OFF, DBS ON reduced stride length variability and sway path length in ET DBS. The DBS-induced reduction in stride length variability was associated with the reduction in both upper trunk tremor and upper limb tremor. The DBS-induced reduction in sway path length was associated with the reduction in upper trunk tremor. Discussion: The findings of this study revealed that VIM DBS was effective in improving gait and balance in ET DBS and that improvements in gait and postural balance were associated with a reduction of axial tremor during the tasks. Highlights: ET patients exhibit tremor in various body locations during gait and balance.DBS reduced stride length variability and sway path length.DBS-induced improvements in gait and balance were associated with reduction in axial tremor.

Diffusion Magnetic Resonance Imaging Detects Progression in Parkinson's Disease: A Placebo-Controlled Trial of Rasagiline.

BACKGROUND: Rasagiline has received attention as a potential disease-modifying therapy for Parkinson's disease (PD). Whether rasagiline is disease modifying remains in question. OBJECTIVE: The main objective of this study was to determine whether rasagiline has disease-modifying effects in PD over 1 year. Secondarily we evaluated two diffusion magnetic resonance imaging pulse sequences to determine the best sequence to measure disease progression. METHODS: This prospective, randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial assessed the effects of rasagiline administered at 1 mg/day over 12 months in early-stage PD. The primary outcome was 1-year change in free-water accumulation in posterior substantia nigra (pSN) measured using two diffusion magnetic resonance imaging pulse sequences, one with a repetition time (TR) of 2500 ms (short TR; n = 90) and one with a TR of 6400 ms (long TR; n = 75). Secondary clinical outcomes also were assessed. RESULTS: Absolute change in pSN free-water accumulation was not significantly different between groups (short TR: P = 0.346; long TR: P = 0.228). No significant differences were found in any secondary clinical outcomes between groups. Long TR, but not short TR, data show pSN free-water increased significantly over 1 year (P = 0.025). Movement Disorder Society Unified Parkinson's Disease Rating Scale testing of motor function, Part III increased significantly over 1 year (P = 0.009), and baseline free-water in the pSN correlated with the 1-year change in Movement Disorder Society Unified Parkinson's Disease Rating Scale testing of motor function, Part III (P = 0.004) and 1-year change in bradykinesia score (P = 0.044). CONCLUSIONS: We found no evidence that 1 mg/day rasagiline has a disease-modifying effect in PD over 1 year. We found pSN free-water increased over 1 year, and baseline free-water relates to clinical motor progression, demonstrating the importance of diffusion imaging parameters for detecting and predicting PD progression. © 2021 International Parkinson and Movement Disorder Society.

Therapeutic Advances in the Treatment of Holmes Tremor: Systematic Review.

OBJECTIVE: We aimed to formulate a practical clinical treatment algorithm for Holmes tremor (HT) by reviewing currently published clinical data. MATERIALS AND METHODS: We performed a systematic review of articles discussing the management of HT published between January 1990 and December 2018. We examined data from 89 patients published across 58 studies detailing the effects of pharmacological or surgical interventions on HT severity. Clinical outcomes were measured by a continuous 1-10 ranked scale. The majority of studies addressing treatment response were case series or case reports. No randomized control studies were identified. RESULTS: Our review included 24 studies focusing on pharmacologic treatments of 25 HT patients and 34 studies focusing on the effect of deep brain stimulation (DBS) in 64 patients. In the medical intervention group, the most commonly used drugs were levetiracetam, trihexyphenidyl, and levodopa. In the surgically treated group, the thalamic ventralis intermedius nucleus (VIM) and globus pallidus internus (GPi) were the most common brain targets for neuromodulation. The two targets accounted for 57.8% and 32.8% of total cases, respectively. Overall, compared to the medically treated group, DBS provided greater tremor suppression (p = 0.025) and was more effective for the management of postural tremor in HT. Moreover, GPi DBS displayed greater benefit in the resting tremor component (p = 0.042) and overall tremor reduction (p = 0.022). CONCLUSIONS: There is a highly variable response to different medical treatments in HT without randomized clinical trials available to dictate treatment decisions. A variety of medical and surgical treatment options can be considered for the management of HT. Collaborative research between different institutions and researchers are warranted and needed to improve our understanding of the pathophysiology and management of this condition. In this review, we propose a practical treatment algorithm for HT based on currently available evidence.

Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation in Tremor Syndromes: Pathophysiologic Insights and Therapeutic Role.

Transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) is a painless, non-invasive, and established brain stimulation technique to investigate human brain function. Over the last three decades, TMS has shed insight into the pathophysiology of many neurological disorders. Tremor is an involuntary, rhythmic oscillatory movement disorder commonly related to pathological oscillations propagated via the cerebello-thalamo-cortical pathway. Although tremor is the most common movement disorder and recent imaging studies have enhanced our understanding of the critical pathogenic networks, the underlying pathophysiology of different tremor syndromes is complex and still not fully understood. TMS has been used as a tool to further our understanding of tremor pathophysiology. In addition, repetitive TMS (rTMS) that can modulate brain functions through plasticity effects has been targeted to the tremor network to gain potential therapeutic benefits. However, evidence is available for only a few studies that included small patient samples with limited clinical follow-up. This review aims to discuss the role of TMS in advancing the pathophysiological understanding as well as emerging applications of rTMS for treating individual tremor syndromes. The review will focus on essential tremor, Parkinson's disease tremor, dystonic tremor syndrome, orthostatic tremor, and functional tremor.

Effect of a Mediterranean diet intervention on gastrointestinal function in Parkinson's disease (the MEDI-PD study): study protocol for a randomised controlled trial.

INTRODUCTION: Constipation is a common and sometimes debilitating non-motor symptom of Parkinson's disease (PD) that can result in intestinal inflammation and microbial dysbiosis. The Mediterranean diet, rich in fermentable fibres and anti-inflammatory phenolic compounds, is associated with reduced risk of developing PD and slower progression of parkinsonism. The Mediterranean diet is often recommended for people with PD; however, no studies to date examine this diet as a therapeutic intervention to modulate gastrointestinal (GI) dysfunction. METHODS AND ANALYSIS: This is a randomised, controlled, parallel study. During a 2-week run-in, participants with PD and constipation symptoms (n=52) will undergo baseline nutritional and neurological assessments and provide a stool sample. Participants will be stratified by sex and Hoehn and Yahr stage and randomised to follow standard of care for constipation (control) or standard of care plus a Mediterranean diet (intervention) for 8 weeks. A study dietitian will provide dietary instruction and weekly follow-up via telephone to both groups to support adherence and monitor adverse events. Questionnaires will assess dietary intake and GI function including stool frequency, form, symptoms and laxative usage. Measurements completed at baseline will be repeated at 4 and 8 weeks of the intervention. The primary outcome is to evaluate the difference between mean change (final-baseline) in Gastrointestinal Symptom Rating Scale (GSRS) constipation syndrome scores for the control versus intervention groups. Secondary outcomes will assess stool frequency and form, weekly GSRS syndrome scores, digestive quality of life, laxative usage, faecal microbial communities and inflammatory markers, anxiety, depression, quality life, body weight and composition, dietary fibre intake and Mediterranean diet adherence. ETHICS AND DISSEMINATION: The study has received University of Florida Institutional Review Board-01 approval (IRB202001333). Findings will be disseminated via conference presentations, lectures and peer-reviewed publications. TRIAL REGISTRATION NUMBER: NCT04683900.

Response to Telemedicine Visits From Patients With Parkinsonism During the COVID-19 Pandemic on Postvisit Surveys.

Parkinson's disease and parkinsonism are common chronic neurodegenerative disorders that tend to affect older adults and cause physical and sometimes cognitive limitations. Given that these limitations could impact successful telemedicine use, we aimed to investigate the experiences of patients with parkinsonism using telemedicine during the COVID-19 pandemic. A 19-item survey was emailed to patients with parkinsonism following telemedicine visits at a single US tertiary care parkinsonism specialty clinic. Seventy-four individuals responded, out of 270 invitations sent. Almost two-thirds (61.6%) of the respondents were comfortable with using technology in general, and almost all were very satisfied with their telemedicine experience. The most commonly reported benefits included cost and travel savings, ease of access to a specialist, and time savings. Issues with technology and previsit instructions were the most commonly identified challenges (28%). Urgent implementation, due to the pandemic, of telemedicine care for patients with parkinsonism was feasible and well received. The challenges most commonly reported by patients could be potentially alleviated by better education and support.

Home Health Management of Parkinson Disease Deep Brain Stimulation: A Randomized Clinical Trial.

Importance: The travel required to receive deep brain stimulation (DBS) programming causes substantial burden on patients and limits who can access DBS therapy. Objective: To evaluate the efficacy of home health DBS postoperative management in an effort to reduce travel burden and improve access. Design, Settings, and Participants: This open-label randomized clinical trial was conducted at University of Florida Health from November 2017 to April 2020. Eligible participants had a diagnosis of Parkinson disease (PD) and were scheduled to receive DBS independently of the study. Consenting participants were randomized 1:1 to receive either standard of care or home health postoperative DBS management for 6 months after surgery. Primary caregivers, usually spouses, were also enrolled to assess caregiver strain. Interventions: The home health postoperative management was conducted by a home health nurse who chose DBS settings with the aid of the iPad-based Mobile Application for PD DBS system. Prior to the study, the home health nurse had no experience providing DBS care. Main Outcomes and Measures: The primary outcome was the number of times each patient traveled to the movement disorders clinic during the study period. Secondary outcomes included changes from baseline on the Unified Parkinson's Disease Rating Scale part III. Results: Approximately 75 patients per year were scheduled for DBS. Of the patients who met inclusion criteria over the entire study duration, 45 either declined or were excluded for various reasons. Of the 44 patients enrolled, 19 of 21 randomized patients receiving the standard of care (mean [SD] age, 64.1 [10.0] years; 11 men) and 23 of 23 randomized patients receiving home health who underwent a minimum of 1 postoperative management visit (mean [SD] age, 65.0 [10.9] years; 13 men) were included in analysis. The primary outcome revealed that patients randomized to home health had significantly fewer clinic visits than the patients in the standard of care arm (mean [SD], 0.4 [0.8] visits vs 4.8 [0.4] visits; P < .001). We found no significant differences between the groups in the secondary outcomes measuring the efficacy of DBS. No adverse events occurred in association with the study procedure or devices. Conclusions and Relevance: This study provides evidence supporting the safety and feasibility of postoperative home health DBS management. Trial Registration: ClinicalTrials.gov Identifier: NCT02474459.

Closed-Loop Deep Brain Stimulation to Treat Medication-Refractory Freezing of Gait in Parkinson's Disease.

Background: Treating medication-refractory freezing of gait (FoG) in Parkinson's disease (PD) remains challenging despite several trials reporting improvements in motor symptoms using subthalamic nucleus or globus pallidus internus (GPi) deep brain stimulation (DBS). Pedunculopontine nucleus (PPN) region DBS has been used for medication-refractory FoG, with mixed findings. FoG, as a paroxysmal phenomenon, provides an ideal framework for the possibility of closed-loop DBS (CL-DBS). Methods: In this clinical trial (NCT02318927), five subjects with medication-refractory FoG underwent bilateral GPi DBS implantation to address levodopa-responsive PD symptoms with open-loop stimulation. Additionally, PPN DBS leads were implanted for CL-DBS to treat FoG. The primary outcome of the study was a 40% improvement in medication-refractory FoG in 60% of subjects at 6 months when "on" PPN CL-DBS. Secondary outcomes included device feasibility to gauge the recruitment potential of this four-lead DBS approach for a potentially larger clinical trial. Safety was judged based on adverse events and explantation rate. Findings: The feasibility of this approach was demonstrated as we recruited five subjects with both "on" and "off" medication freezing. The safety for this population of patients receiving four DBS leads was suboptimal and associated with a high explantation rate of 40%. The primary clinical outcome in three of the five subjects was achieved at 6 months. However, the group analysis of the primary clinical outcome did not reveal any benefit. Interpretation: This study of a human PPN CL-DBS trial in medication-refractory FoG showed feasibility in recruitment, suboptimal safety, and a heterogeneous clinical effect in FoG outcomes.

Cortical Oscillations in Cervical Dystonia and Dystonic Tremor.

Dystonia involves sustained or repetitive muscle contractions, affects different skeletal muscles, and may be associated with tremor. Few studies have investigated if cortical pathophysiology is impaired even when dystonic muscles are not directly engaged and during the presence of dystonic tremor (DT). Here, we recorded high-density electroencephalography and time-locked behavioral data in 2 cohorts of patients and controls during the performance of head movements, upper limb movements, and grip force. Patients with cervical dystonia had reduced movement-related desynchronization in the alpha and beta bands in the bilateral sensorimotor cortex during head turning movements, produced by dystonic muscles. Reduced desynchronization in the upper beta band in the ipsilateral motor and bilateral sensorimotor cortex was found during upper limb planar movements, produced by non-dystonic muscles. In a precision grip task, patients with DT had reduced movement-related desynchronization in the alpha and beta bands in the bilateral sensorimotor cortex. We observed a general pattern of abnormal sensorimotor cortical desynchronization that was present across the head and upper limb motor tasks, in patients with and without DT when compared with controls. Our findings suggest that abnormal cortical desynchronization is a general feature of dystonia that should be a target of pharmacological and other therapeutic interventions.

Neurophysiological Correlates of Gait in the Human Basal Ganglia and the PPN Region in Parkinson's Disease.

This study aimed to characterize the neurophysiological correlates of gait in the human pedunculopontine nucleus (PPN) region and the globus pallidus internus (GPi) in Parkinson's disease (PD) cohort. Though much is known about the PPN region through animal studies, there are limited physiological recordings from ambulatory humans. The PPN has recently garnered interest as a potential deep brain stimulation (DBS) target for improving gait and freezing of gait (FoG) in PD. We used bidirectional neurostimulators to record from the human PPN region and GPi in a small cohort of severely affected PD subjects with FoG despite optimized dopaminergic medications. Five subjects, with confirmed on-dopaminergic medication FoG, were implanted with bilateral GPi and bilateral PPN region DBS electrodes. Electrophysiological recordings were obtained during various gait tasks for 5 months postoperatively in both the off- and on-medication conditions (obtained during the no stimulation condition). The results revealed suppression of low beta power in the GPi and a 1-8 Hz modulation in the PPN region which correlated with human gait. The PPN feature correlated with walking speed. GPi beta desynchronization and PPN low-frequency synchronization were observed as subjects progressed from rest to ambulatory tasks. Our findings add to our understanding of the neurophysiology underpinning gait and will likely contribute to the development of novel therapies for abnormal gait in PD. Clinical Trial Registration: Clinicaltrials.gov identifier; NCT02318927.

Quantitative Separation of Tremor and Ataxia in Essential Tremor.

OBJECTIVE: This study addresses an important problem in neurology, distinguishing tremor and ataxia using quantitative methods. Specifically, we aimed to quantitatively separate dysmetria, a cardinal sign of ataxia, from tremor in essential tremor (ET). METHODS: In Experiment 1, we compared 19 participants diagnosed with ET undergoing thalamic deep brain stimulation (DBS; ETDBS ) to 19 healthy controls (HC). We quantified tremor during postural tasks using accelerometry and dysmetria with fast, reverse-at-target goal-directed movements. To ensure that endpoint accuracy was unaffected by tremor, we quantified dysmetria in selected trials manifesting a smooth trajectory to the endpoint. Finally, we manipulated tremor amplitude by switching DBS ON and OFF to examine its effect on dysmetria. In Experiment 2, we compared 10 ET participants with 10 HC to determine whether we could identify and distinguish dysmetria from tremor in non-DBS ET. RESULTS: Three findings suggest that we can quantify dysmetria independently of tremor in ET. First, ETDBS and ET exhibited greater dysmetria than HC and dysmetria did not correlate with tremor (R2 < 0.01). Second, even for trials with tremor-free trajectories to the target, ET exhibited greater dysmetria than HC (p < 0.01). Third, activating DBS reduced tremor (p < 0.01) but had no effect on dysmetria (p > 0.2). INTERPRETATION: We demonstrate that dysmetria can be quantified independently of tremor using fast, reverse-at-target goal-directed movements. These results have important implications for the understanding of ET and other cerebellar and tremor disorders. Future research should examine the neurophysiological mechanisms underlying each symptom and characterize their independent contribution to disability. ANN NEUROL 2020;88:375-387.

A Comprehensive Review of Brain Connectomics and Imaging to Improve Deep Brain Stimulation Outcomes.

DBS is an effective neuromodulatory therapy that has been applied in various conditions, including PD, essential tremor, dystonia, Tourette syndrome, and other movement disorders. There have also been recent examples of applications in epilepsy, chronic pain, and neuropsychiatric conditions. Innovations in neuroimaging technology have been driving connectomics, an emerging whole-brain network approach to neuroscience. Two rising techniques are functional connectivity profiling and structural connectivity profiling. Functional connectivity profiling explores the operational relationships between multiple regions of the brain with respect to time and stimuli. Structural connectivity profiling approximates physical connections between different brain regions through reconstruction of axonal fibers. Through these techniques, complex relationships can be described in various disease states, such as PD, as well as in response to therapy, such as DBS. These advances have expanded our understanding of human brain function and have provided a partial in vivo glimpse into the underlying brain circuits underpinning movement and other disorders. This comprehensive review will highlight the contemporary concepts in brain connectivity as applied to DBS, as well as introduce emerging considerations in movement disorders. © 2020 International Parkinson and Movement Disorder Society.

Deep brain stimulation in essential tremor: targets, technology, and a comprehensive review of clinical outcomes.

Introduction: Essential tremor (ET) is a common movement disorder with an estimated prevalence of 0.9% worldwide. Deep brain stimulation (DBS) is an established therapy for medication refractory and debilitating tremor. With the arrival of next generation technology, the implementation and delivery of DBS has been rapidly evolving. This review will highlight the current applications and constraints for DBS in ET.Areas covered: The mechanism of action, targets for neuromodulation, next generation guidance techniques, symptom-specific applications, and long-term efficacy will be reviewed.Expert opinion: The posterior subthalamic area and zona incerta are alternative targets to thalamic DBS in ET. However, they may be associated with additional stimulation-induced side effects. Novel stimulation paradigms and segmented electrodes provide innovative approaches to DBS programming and stimulation-induced side effects.

Gait characterization for patients with orthostatic tremor.

INTRODUCTION: Orthostatic tremor (OT) patients frequently report gait unsteadiness with the advancement of disease; however, there is little understanding of its physiology. We sought to examine in OT, the spatial and temporal characteristics of gait, and the relationship with tremor physiology. METHODS: Gait parameters for OT (n = 16) were recorded with an instrumented Zeno walkway system. All participants complained of gait unsteadiness, especially during slow walking. In a subset of OT, recordings were synchronized with a wireless EMG system for tremor assessment and feet pressure recording. Gait assessments were performed at self-selected habitual, fast, and slow speeds. RESULTS: Compared to data available for an age- and sex-matched healthy controls, OT patients had a significantly reduced step length, increased step width, and increased gait variability (p < 0.0001). Tremor discharges related to OT were consistently recorded across three different speeds of walking. These discharges persisted through all phases of the gait cycle, including the swing phase when the limb was not weight-bearing. The highest tremor amplitude was recorded in the single support phase, followed by double support, and least during the swing phase. CONCLUSION: OT patients have distinct gait abnormalities similar to cerebellar disorders. Tremor discharges from the non-weight bearing leg in the swing phase suggests that muscle contractions, even when occurring without resistance, contribute to OT generation.

A pooled meta-analysis of GPi and STN deep brain stimulation outcomes for cervical dystonia.

OBJECTIVE: To analyze deep brain stimulation (DBS) outcomes in patients with cervical dystonia (CD), the relationships between motor and disability/pain outcomes, and the differences in outcomes between globus pallidus internus (GPi) and subthalamic nucleus (STN) DBS, and to identify potential outcome predictors. METHODS: A systematic literature search identified individual patient data of CD patients who underwent DBS and whose outcomes were assessed with the Toronto Western Spasmodic Torticollis Rating Scale (TWSTRS). Then, we performed a pooled meta-analysis on this cohort. RESULTS: A review of 39 papers yielded 208 patients with individual TWSTRS scores and demographic information. At a mean follow-up period of 23.3 months after either GPi or STN DBS, the TWSTRS total (58.8%), severity (53.9%), disability (61.3%), and pain (46.6%) scores significantly improved compared to baseline status (all p < 0.001). There were no significant outcome differences between short-term (< 23.3 months) and long-term (≥ 23.3 months). The TWSTRS outcomes after GPi and STN DBS were comparable, whereas these two targets showed different adverse effect profiles. The rates of responders to DBS according to the TWSTRS total and severity (defined as ≥ 25% improvement) were both 89%. Regression analyses demonstrated motor benefits associated with disability improvement more than pain relief (R2 = 0.345 and 0.195, respectively). No clinically meaningful predictors for DBS outcomes were identified. CONCLUSION: DBS improves motor symptoms, disability, and pain in CD patients and may provide sustained benefits over 2 years. GPi and STN appear to be equally effective targets with different adverse effect profiles.