Vildagliptin Treatment Ameliorates Renal Interstitial Fibrosis in a Murine Model of Unilateral Ureteral Obstruction.

Renal interstitial fibrosis in mice can be modeled using unilateral ureteral obstruction (UUO). Here, we investigated the anti-fibrotic effects of the dipeptidyl peptidase-4 inhibitor vildagliptin in this model. We found that vildagliptin given in the drinking water at 10.6 ± 1.5 mg/kg/d prevented fibrosis. Mechanistically, UUO was associated with extracellular signal-regulated kinase (ERK) phosphorylation and with the accumulation of the toxic lipid peroxidation product expression of 4-hydroxy-2-nonenal (4-HNE). Both were significantly inhibited by vildagliptin. Similarly, UUO caused reductions in heme oxygenase-1 (HO-1) mRNA in the kidney, whereas interleukin-6 (IL-6) and cyclooxygenase-1 (COX-1) mRNA were increased; these effects were also prevented by vildagliptin. Taking these data together, we propose that vildagliptin reduces renal interstitial fibrosis resulting from UUO by means of its effects on ERK phosphorylation and the amounts of 4-HNE, HO-1, IL-6 and COX-1 in the kidney.

Prevention of Renal Interstitial Fibrosis by Suplatast in a Mouse Model.

Suplatast is a T helper 2 (Th2) cytokine inhibitor. Here, we tested its therapeutic effects using a mouse model of renal interstitial fibrosis caused by unilateral ureteral obstruction (UUO). In this model, suplatast was found to prevent the induced fibrosis in the obstructed kidney when given in the drinking water at 100 mg/kg/d. Mechanistically, suplaplast inhibited the phosphorylation of extracellular signal-regulated kinase (ERK) that was otherwise increased by UUO. Similarly, suplaplast reduced the increased accumulation of KIM-1, transforming growth factor ß (TGF-ß), type I collagen, interleukin-4 (IL-4), janus kinase (JAK)1 and signal transducer and activator of transcription (STAT)3 mRNA seen in the kidneys of UUO-treated mice. Furthermore, STAT3 phosphorylation, which was stimulated by UUO, was also significantly decreased by suplatast. Collectively, these data show that suplatast reduces UUO-induced renal interstitial fibrosis via mechanisms including a reduction of phosphorylation of ERK and JAK/STAT pathway signaling.

Effect of N-Acetyl Cysteine on Renal Interstitial Fibrosis in Mice.

This study examined the effect of N-acetyl cysteine (NAC), a reactive oxygen species (ROS) inhibitor, on renal interstitial fibrosis induced by unilateral ureteral obstruction (UUO) in mice. UUO led to a significant increase in the fibrotic area of obstructed kidneys, which was attenuated by NAC (84.8 mg/kg/d) in the drinking water. Renal expression of type III collagen and tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-α mRNAs was elevated in UUO mice and inhibited by NAC. Extracellular signal-regulated kinase (ERK1/2) phosphorylation was significantly elevated by UUO, and NAC significantly attenuated the elevation. UUO inhibited the activity of glutathione peroxidase, while NAC restored its activity. Together, the results of this study suggest that renal interstitial fibrosis induced by UUO was ameliorated by NAC via several mechanisms including increased glutathione peroxidase activity, reduced phosphorylation of ERK1/2, and reduced expression of TNF-α and type III collagen mRNAs.

Dimethylthiourea ameliorates carbon tetrachloride-induced acute liver injury in ovariectomized mice.

AIMS: In order to clarify hepato-protective actions of estrogen, we examined the progress of carbon tetrachloride (CCl4)-induced acute liver injury (ALI) in sham and ovariectomized (ovx) mice and the effects of dimethylthiourea (DMTU), a hydroxyl radical scavenger, and meloxicam (Melo), a selective cox-2 inhibitor, on the development of CCl4-induced ALI. MAIN METHODS: Female C57BL/6 J mice weighing 15-20 g were performed sham or ovx operation at 8 weeks of age. Blood and liver samples were collected 15 and 24 h after CCl4 administration. Sham and ovx mice were given DMTU, Melo or saline intraperitoneally 30 min before CCl4 or corn oil administration. KEY FINDINGS: ALT levels in ovx mice were significantly increased compared to those in sham mice. DMTU reduced ALT levels in ovx mice to the same levels as those in sham mice after CCl4 injection. CCl4 upregulated TNF-α, IL-6, cox-2 and iNOS expression in ovx mice compared to the levels in sham mice. DMTU significantly reduced cox-2 and iNOS expression levels upregulated by CCl4 in ovx mice. However, pretreatment with Melo had no effects on ALT levels and the gene expression levels of TNF-α, IL-6 and HO-1 in either sham or ovx mice, indicating that cox-2 may not participate in increase of CCl4-induced ALI caused by estrogen deficiency. SIGNIFICANCE: Ovariectomy accelerated the development of CCl4-induced acute liver injury, and DMTU reduced liver injury. These results suggest that estrogen may act as an antioxidant in the development CCl4-induced acute liver injury.

Effect of brefelamide on HGF-induced survival of 1321N1 human astrocytoma cells.

Malignant gliomas are characterized by their high level of resistance to chemo- and radiotherapy and new treatment options are urgently required. We previously demonstrated that brefelamide, an aromatic amide isolated from methanol extracts of cellular slime molds Dictyostelium brefeldianum and D. giganteum, had antiproliferative effects on 1321N1 human astrocytoma cells, a model of glioma. In this study, we investigated the mechanisms by which brefelamide inhibited 1321N1 and PC12 rat pheochromocytoma cell proliferation. When cells were cultured in serum-free medium, hepatocyte growth factor (HGF) increased survival of 1321N1 cells but not PC12 cells. HGF receptor, c-MET, was strongly expressed in 1321N1 cells, but not in PC12 cells. Pretreatment of 1321N1 cells with brefelamide inhibited both HGF-induced cell survival and expression of c-MET. Phosphorylation of extracellular signal-regulated kinase (ERK) and AKT was increased by HGF, but these changes were inhibited by brefelamide pretreatment. Moreover, HGF mRNA levels and secretion were reduced by brefelamide. These results suggest that brefelamide reduces survival of 1321N1 cells via multiple effects including suppression of HGF receptor expression and HGF secretion and inhibition of ERK and AKT phosphorylation.

Effect of amlodipine on mouse renal interstitial fibrosis.

Unilateral ureteral obstruction (UUO) is a well-established method to study interstitial fibrosis of the kidney. In this study, we investigated the effects of a calcium channel blocker, amlodipine, on UUO-induced renal interstitial fibrosis in mice. UUO significantly increased the fibrotic area in the obstructed kidney, but this change was inhibited by amlodipine (6.7mg/kg/day in drinking water). mRNA expression of heat shock protein (HSP) 47 and type IV collagen was increased in the kidneys of UUO mice. Amlodipine reduced the expression of both HSP47 and type IV collagen mRNAs. Phosphorylation of c-jun-N-terminal kinase (JNK) was significantly increased by UUO, but the change was inhibited by amlodipine. Collectively, these results suggest that amlodipine may inhibit the expression of HSP47 and type IV collagen by reducing phosphorylation of JNK and ameliorating the renal interstitial fibrosis induced by UUO.

Apocynin reduced doxycycline-induced acute liver injury in ovariectomized mice.

To determine the physiological role of estrogen in the development of liver injury, we examined the sensitivities of sham and ovariectomy (ovx) mice against doxycycline (DOXY)-induced acute liver injury. Ovx or sham operation was performed in C57BL/6J wild-type female mice of eight weeks of age. Sham mice and ovx mice were treated with DOXY (240 mg/kg ip) 8 weeks after the operation, 30 min after apocynin (5 mg/kg) or saline administration. Blood and liver samples were obtained at 3 and 6 h after DOXY administration. Liver dysfunction occurred soon after DOXY administration and became more severe in ovx mice than in sham mice. At early phase after DOXY injection, TNF-α and iNOS inductions upregulated almost the same levels in sham and ovx mice. On the other hand, expression levels of IL-6, IL-10, c-fos, cox-2 and HO-1, downstream genes of TNF-α, were significantly increased in ovx mice compared to those in sham mice, correlated with liver dysfunction. In addition, apocynin, a NADPH oxidase (Nox) inhibitor, totally improved DOXY-induced liver injury in both sham and ovx mice, indicating that reactive oxygen species generated through Nox activation by DOXY are responsible for development of acute liver injury.

Effect of cyclooxygenase (COX)-2 inhibition on mouse renal interstitial fibrosis.

Unilateral ureteral obstruction (UUO) is a well-established model for the study of interstitial fibrosis in the kidney. In this study, we investigated the effects of a COX-2 inhibitor, meloxicam, on UUO-induced renal interstitial fibrosis in mice. Serum creatinine, blood urea nitrogen and urinary glucose were significantly increased by UUO. However, all of these changes were attenuated by meloxicam (1 mg/kg/day). Masson׳s trichrome staining showed that interstitial fibrosis was significantly increased by UUO, but that meloxicam also significantly diminished the area of UUO-induced fibrosis. Heat shock protein (HSP) 47 protein, a collagen-specific molecular chaperone essential for the biosynthesis of collagen molecules, and type IV collagen mRNA were increased in kidneys of UUO mice. Meloxicam reduced the expression of both HSP47 protein and type IV collagen mRNA. The phosphorylation of extracellular regulated kinase (ERK) and c-jun-N-terminal kinase (JNK) was increased by UUO, but these changes were inhibited by meloxicam. Collectively, these results suggest that COX-2 may be involved in the expression of HSP47 and type IV collagen through the phosphorylation of ERK and JNK, accelerating renal interstitial fibrosis.

Regeneration of injured renal tubules.

Acute kidney injury (AKI), clinically defined by high serum creatinine and low urine flow, has many complicated pathophysiological features including tubular and glomerular injury. Although renal tubules are thought to be constituted by highly differentiated epithelial cells, it is possible to repair injured nephrons by the healing process. Several studies have revealed that AKI, especially AKI caused by ischemia/reperfusion injury or nephrotoxic medication, depends on a number of factors, including activation of transcriptional factors, endothelial injury of peritubular small vessels, immune responses, and inflammatory processes associated with necrosis and apoptosis of renal tubular epithelium. For regeneration of injured tubules, partly dedifferentiated progenitor-like cells fill the injured site and constitute the tubular structure and function, although the source of these cells is still under debate. It is essential to understand the molecular, cellular, and genetic mechanisms of AKI and tubular regeneration for the development of therapies to prevent and treat kidney injury.

Amelioration of cisplatin-induced mouse renal lesions by a cyclooxygenase (COX)-2 selective inhibitor.

In this study, we investigated the effects of the cyclooxygenase (COX)-2 selective inhibitor, meloxicam, on cisplatin-induced inflammation, oxidative stress and renal lesions in BALB/c mice. A single cisplatin injection (13 mg/kg, i.p.) significantly increased plasma creatinine, blood urea nitrogen and urinary glucose accompanied by a concomitant increase in COX-2 mRNA and COX-2 protein levels. These changes in renal lesion parameters were diminished by simultaneous treatment of meloxicam (0.7 mg/kg/day in drinking water). The expression of oxidative stress markers, p47(phox), p67(phox), hemoxygenase-1 (HO-1), nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate (NADPH) oxidase 2 (NOX2) and 4-hydroxy-2-nonenal (4-HNE)-modified protein were increased with cisplatin injection. Simultaneous treatment of meloxicam with cisplatin significantly inhibited the increase in p47(phox), HO-1 and 4-HNE-modified protein. The phosphorylation of extracellular regulated kinase (ERK) and c-jun-N-terminal kinase (JNK) were increased with cisplatin injection, but these changes were inhibited by meloxicam. Moreover, concomitant meloxicam treatment also prevented the cisplatin-induced infiltration of macrophages to the tubulointerstitial area. These results suggest that meloxicam can ameliorate cisplatin-induced mouse renal lesions, potentially through the inhibition of inflammatory and oxidative stress responses.

Interleukin-6 modulates oxidative stress produced during the development of cisplatin nephrotoxicity.

AIMS: We reported that interleukin-6 (IL-6) plays a protective role in the development of cisplatin-induced acute renal failure (ARF) through upregulation of anti-oxidative stress factors. In this study, we examined the effects of dimethylthiourea (DMTU), a hydroxyl radical scavenger, on the development of cisplatin-induced ARF in wild-type (WT) and IL-6(-/-) mice to determine how IL-6 contributes to modulation of oxidative stress caused by cisplatin. MAIN METHODS: WT and IL-6(-/-) male mice were given either cisplatin (30 mg/kg) or saline intraperitoneally. DMTU (100mg/kg) or saline was given 30 min before cisplatin or saline administration. Blood and kidney samples were collected on days 1 and 3 after cisplatin administration. KEY FINDINGS: In WT mice, DMTU markedly improved cisplatin-induced renal dysfunction and survival rate. DMTU reduced the expression levels of TNF-α, Bax and c-fos and increased the expression levels of IL-6, Bcl-xL and Nrf2 in WT mice. Reduced reactive oxygen species (ROS) by DMTU resulted in increases of IL-6, anti-apoptosis and anti-oxidant gene expression levels. In IL-6(-/-) mice, DMTU also improved cisplatin-induced renal dysfunction and reduced expression levels of TNF-α, Bax and c-fos, but not Bcl-xL and Nrf2. Since Nrf2 induces IL-6 expression, IL-6 and Nrf2 may influence each other during anti-oxidant responses. The basal level of HO-1 in IL-6(-/-) mice was higher than that in WT mice. SIGNIFICANCE: In IL-6(-/-) mice, overproduction of ROS by cisplatin results in upregulation of HO-1 expression in order to eliminate oxidative stress. IL-6 mediates the generation and elimination of ROS during cisplatin-induced ARF.

Interleukin-6 plays a protective role in development of cisplatin-induced acute renal failure through upregulation of anti-oxidative stress factors.

AIMS: Cisplatin, a major chemotherapeutic agent, accumulates in proximal tubules of the kidneys and causes acute renal failure dose-dependently. We previously reported that cisplatin induced more severe renal dysfunction in interleukin-6 (IL-6) knockout (IL-6(-/-)) mice than in wild-type (WT) mice. Expression of a pro-apoptotic protein was significantly increased with cisplatin in IL-6(-/-) mice compared to that in WT mice. IL-6, locally expressed in renal tubular cells after cisplatin administration, prevents the development of renal dysfunction at an early stage. In the present study, we focused on downstream signals of IL-6 and oxidative stress induced by cisplatin in order to evaluate the protective role of IL-6 in the development of acute renal failure. MAIN METHODS: WT and IL-6(-/-) mice were given either cisplatin (30 mg/kg) or saline intraperitoneally. Blood and kidney samples were collected at 24h and 72 h after cisplatin administration. The changes in expression of 4-hydroxy-2-nonenal protein (4-HNE, oxidative stress marker) and cyclooxygenase-2 (cox-2), activities of superoxide dismutases and caspase-3, and phosphorylation of extracellular signal-regulated kinase (ERK) were examined. KEY FINDINGS: Cisplatin increased the expression of 4-HNE and cox-2, and phosphorylation of ERK in IL-6(-/-) mice than in WT mice. On the other hand, activity of superoxide dismutase, an anti-oxidative enzyme, was significantly decreased in the kidney obtained from IL-6(-/-) mice after cisplatin administration. SIGNIFICANCE: Our findings suggest that IL-6 plays a protective role in the development of cisplatin-induced acute renal failure through upregulation of anti-oxidative stress factors.

A reduction of epidermal growth factor receptor is involved in brefelamide-induced inhibition of phosphorylation of ERK in human astrocytoma cells.

Brefelamide is an aromatic amide isolated from Dictyostelium cellular slime molds. We found that brefelamide has a potent inhibitory growth effect measured by MTT assay in 1321N1 human astrocytoma cells. The inhibition was associated with reduced phosphorylation of extracellular signal-regulated kinase (ERK). Brefelamide inhibited epidermal growth factor (EGF)-induced phosphorylation of ERK in a concentration-dependent manner. Furthermore, brefelamide diminished EGF-induced phosphorylation of EGF receptor at Tyr(1068), a Grb2 binding site that leads to an activation of the Ras/Raf/ERK system. Brefelamide also reduced the expression level of the EGF receptor. These results suggest that one of the mechanisms of action of brefelamide is assumed to be inhibition of phosphorylation of ERK through a reduction of EGF receptor activity in 1321N1 human astrocytoma cells.

Distinct effects of z-335, a new thromboxane A2 receptor antagonist, on rabbit platelets and aortic smooth muscle.

The effect of a novel thromboxane A2 receptor (TP) antagonist, (+/-)-sodium[2-(4-chlorophenylsulfonylaminomethyl)- indan-5-yl]acetate monohydrate (Z-335), on the U46619-induced responses was compared between rabbit platelets and aorta. Z-335 inhibited platelet shape change induced by U46619 with higher efficacy than SQ29548, a common TP antagonist. The U46619-induced platelet aggregation was inhibited by Z-335 in a noncompetitive manner, while it was competitively inhibited by SQ29548. Z-335 inhibited U46619-induced vasoconstriction of rabbit aorta with higher efficacy than SQ29548. The pA2 value of Z-335 in aortic vasoconstriction was significantly higher than in platelet shape change. The competitive binding study showed the higher pKi value of Z-335 against [3H]-SQ29548 binding in rabbit aortic smooth muscle cells than in platelets. These data suggest that Z-335 has useful characteristics of TP antagonism.

Thromboxane A2 receptor-mediated G12/13-dependent glial morphological change.

Glial cells express thromboxane A(2) receptor, but its physiological role remains unknown. The present study was performed to examine thromboxane A(2) receptor-mediated morphological change in 1321N1 human astrocytoma cells. Thromboxane A(2) receptor agonists U46619 and STA(2) caused a rapid morphological change to spindle shape from stellate form of the cells pretreated with dibutyryl cyclic AMP, but neither carbachol nor histamine caused the change, suggesting that G(q) pathway may not mainly contribute to the change. Rho kinase inhibitor Y-27632 inhibited U46619-induced morphological change, and U46619 increased the GTP-bound form of RhoA accompanied with actin stress fiber formation. These responses were reduced by expression of p115-RGS that inhibits G(12)/(13) signaling pathway. U46619 also caused the phosphorylation of extracellular signal-regulated kinase (ERK) and [(3)H]thymidine incorporation mainly through G(12)/(13)-Rho pathway. These results suggest that stimulation of thromboxane A(2) receptor causes the morphological change with proliferation mainly through G(12)/(13) activation in glial cells.