Neuronally produced versican V2 renders C-fiber nociceptors IB4 -positive.

A subpopulation of nociceptors, the glial cell line-derived neurotrophic factor (GDNF)-dependent, non-peptidergic C-fibers, expresses a cell-surface glycoconjugate that can be selectively labeled with isolectin B4 (IB4 ), a homotetrameric plant lectin from Griffonia simplicifolia. We show that versican is an IB4 -binding molecule in rat dorsal root ganglion neurons. Using reverse transcriptase polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR), in situ hybridization and immunofluorescence experiments on rat lumbar dorsal root ganglion, we provide the first demonstration that versican is produced by neurons. In addition, by probing Western blots with splice variant-specific antibodies we show that the IB4 -binding versican contains only the glycosaminoglycan alpha domain. Our data support V2 as the versican isoform that renders this subpopulation of nociceptors IB4 -positive (+). A subset of nociceptors, the GDNF-dependent non-peptidergic C-fibers can be characterized by its reactivity for isolectin B4 (IB4), a plant lectin from Griffonia simplicifolia. We have previously demonstrated that versican V2 binds IB4 in a Ca2 + -dependent manner. However, given that versican is thought to be the product of glial cells, it was questionable whether versican V2 can be accountable for the IB4-reactivity of this subset of nociceptors. The results presented here prove - for the first time - a neuronal origin of versican and suggest that versican V2 is the molecule that renders GDNF-dependent non-peptidergic C-fibers IB4-positive.

Light-triggered conversion of non-ionic into ionic surfactants: towards chameleon detergents for 2-D gel electrophoresis.

Caged non-ionic detergents, comprised of polar oligo(ethylene glycol) and non-polar alkyl chains joined by a photocleavable ortho-nitrobenzyl sulfonate linker have been synthesized and characterized. The light-triggered transformation of such chameleon surfactant from a charge-neutral into a charged form offers great potential to improve 2-D gel electrophoretic separation of complex protein mixtures.

Loop 3 of short neurotoxin II is an additional interaction site with membrane-bound nicotinic acetylcholine receptor as detected by solid-state NMR spectroscopy.

The contact area of neurotoxin II from Naja naja oxiana when interacting with the membrane-bound nicotinic acetylcholine receptor from Torpedo californica was determined by solid-state, magic-angle spinning NMR spectroscopy. For this purpose, the carbon signals for more than 90% of the residues of the bound neurotoxin were assigned. Differences between the solution and solid-state chemical shifts of the free and bound form of the toxin are confined to distinct surface regions. Loop II of the short toxin was identified as the main interaction site. In addition, loop III of neurotoxin II shows several strong responses defining an additional interaction site. A comparison with the structures of alpha-cobratoxin bound to the acetylcholine-binding protein from snail species Lymnaea stagnalis and Aplysia californica, and of alpha-bungarotoxin bound to an extracellular domain of an alpha-subunit of the receptor reveals different contact areas for long and short alpha-neurotoxins.

Nicotinic acetylcholine receptors at atomic resolution.

While the structures of several G protein coupled receptors (GPCRs) have been solved by X-ray crystallography, the high-resolution structure of first ligand-gated ion channels (LGICs) has been available only recently. The ultrastructure of the prototypic LGIC nAChR is deduced from electron microscopy in combination with crystal structures of model proteins. From this analysis, agonist and antagonist binding sites and hints at the mechanism of channel gating become visible.

Characterization of rat transient receptor potential vanilloid 1 receptors lacking the N-glycosylation site N604.

Whole-cell patch-clamp recordings were performed on HEK293 cells transiently transfected with the rat (r) wild-type transient receptor potential vanilloid 1 (TRPV1) (rTRPV1) receptor or with a mutant that lacks the potential N-glycosylation site at position N604 (rTRPV1-N604T). Replacement of Asn by Thr (N604T) depressed the maximum of the concentration-response curve for capsaicin and decreased the EC50 value of this agonist. Further, such a manipulation modified the sensitivity to the TRPV1 receptor-antagonist capsazepine and altered the dependence of the capsaicin effect on extracellular pH. Hence, glycosylation may affect the basic functional characteristics of the rTRPV1 receptor channel in accordance with the knowledge that N-glycosylation may regulate ligand binding or gating properties of ionotropic neurotransmitter receptors.

Analysis of the dorsal spinal cord synaptic architecture by combined proteome analysis and in situ hybridization.

The proteomic analysis of tissue samples is an analytical challenge, because identified gene products not only have to be assigned to subcellular structures, but also to cell subpopulations. We here report a strategy of combined subcellular proteomic profiling and in situ hybridization to assign proteins to subcellular sites in subsets of cells within the dorsal region of rat spinal cord. With a focus on synaptic membranes, which represent a complex membrane protein structure composed of multiple integral membrane proteins and networks of accessory structural proteins, we also compared different two-dimensional gel electrophoresis systems for the separation of the proteins. Using MALDI mass spectrometric protein identification based on peptide mass fingerprints, we identified in total 122 different gene products within the different synaptic membrane subfractions. The tissue structure of the dorsal region of the spinal cord is complex, and different layers of neurons can be distinguished neuroanatomically. Proteomic data combined with an in situ hybridization analysis for the detection of mRNA was used to assign selected gene products, namely the optical atrophy protein OPA-1, the presynaptic cytomatrix protein KIAA0378/CAST1, and the uncharacterized coiled-coil-helix-coiled-coil-helix domain containing protein 3 (hypothetical protein FLJ20420), to cell subsets of the dorsal area of the spinal cord. Most striking, KIAA0378/CAST1 mRNA was found only sparsely within the dorsal horn of the spinal cord, but highly abundant within the dorsal root ganglion. This finding, combined with the identification of KIAA0378/CAST1 within the synaptic membrane fraction of the spinal cord at the protein level, are consistent with the reported presynaptic localization of CAST, predominantly within the tissue we investigated primarily attributable to primary afferent sensory neurons. Our approach may be of use in broader studies to characterize the proteomes of neural tissue.

Identification of versican as an isolectin B4-binding glycoprotein from mammalian spinal cord tissue.

Nociceptors are specialized nerve fibers that transmit noxious pain stimuli to the dorsal horn of the spinal cord. A subset of nociceptors, the nonpeptidergic C-fibers, is characterized by its reactivity for the plant isolectin B4 (IB4) from Griffonia simplicifolia. The molecular nature of the IB4-reactive glycoconjugate, although used as a neuroanatomical marker for more than a decade, has remained unknown. We here present data which strongly suggest that a splice variant of the extracellular matrix proteoglycan versican is the IB4-reactive glycoconjugate associated with these nociceptors. We isolated (by subcellular fractionation and IB4 affinity chromatography) a glycoconjugate from porcine spinal cord tissue that migrated in SDS/PAGE as a single distinct protein band at an apparent molecular mass of > 250 kDa. By using MALDI-TOF/TOF MS, we identified this glycoconjugate unambiguously as a V2-like variant of versican. Moreover, we demonstrate that the IB4-reactive glycoconjugate and the versican variant can be co-released from spinal cord membranes by hyaluronidase, and that the IB4-reactive glycoconjugate and the versican variant can be co-precipitated by an anti-versican immunoglobulin and perfectly co-migrate in SDS/PAGE. Our findings shed new light on the role of the extracellular matrix, which is thought to be involved in plastic changes underlying pain-related phenomena such as hyperalgesia and allodynia.

Intracellular domains of the delta-subunits of Torpedo and rat acetylcholine receptors--expression, purification, and characterization.

There are quite detailed structural data on the extracellular ligand-binding domain and the intramembrane channel-forming domain of the nicotinic acetylcholine receptors (nAChR). However, the structure of the intracellular domain, which has variable amino acid sequences in different nAChR subunits, remains unknown. We expressed in Escherichia coli the intracellular loops (between transmembrane fragments TM3 and TM4) of the delta-subunits from the Torpedo californica and Rattus norvegicus muscle nAChRs. To facilitate purification, (His)6-tags were attached with or without linkers, and the effects of protein truncations at C- or N-termini were examined. The proteins were purified from inclusion bodies under denaturing conditions by Ni-NTA-chromatography. Molecular weight and peptide mass fingerprint was determined by MALDI mass spectrometry. Size-exclusion chromatography revealed that the Torpedo intracellular delta-loop refolded in an aqueous buffer was present in solution as a dimer. Phosphorylation of this protein with protein kinase A and tyrosine kinase (Abl) occurred at the same serine and tyrosine residues as in the native receptor. According to CD spectra, the secondary structure was not sensitive to phosphorylation. The rat intracellular loops could be solubilized only in the presence of non-ionic detergents or lipids. CD spectra indicate that the Torpedo and rat proteins have differences in their secondary structure. In the presence of dodecylphosphocholine, high concentrations (up to 6 mg/ml) of the Torpedo and rat intracellular loops were achieved. The results suggest that the spatial structure of the intracellular loops is dependent on environment and species, but is not changed significantly upon enzymatic phosphorylation.

Towards structure determination of neurotoxin II bound to nicotinic acetylcholine receptor: a solid-state NMR approach.

Solid-state magic-angle spinning nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) has sufficient resolving power for full assignment of resonances and structure determination of immobilised biological samples as was recently shown for a small microcrystalline protein. In this work, we show that highly resolved spectra may be obtained from a system composed of a receptor-toxin complex. The NMR sample used for our studies consists of a membrane preparation of the nicotinic acetylcholine receptor from the electric organ of Torpedo californica which was incubated with uniformly 13C-,15N-labelled neurotoxin II. Despite the large size of the ligand-receptor complex ( > 290 kDa) and the high lipid content of the sample, we were able to detect and identify residues from the ligand. The comparison with solution NMR data of the free toxin indicates that its overall structure is very similar when bound to the receptor, but significant changes were observed for one isoleucine.

Dual expression of mouse and rat VRL-1 in the dorsal root ganglion derived cell line F-11 and biochemical analysis of VRL-1 after heterologous expression.

The vanilloid-like TRP-channel VRL-1 (TRPV2) is a nonselective cation channel expressed by primary sensory neurons and non-neuronal tissues [Caterina, M.J., Rosen, T.A., Tominaga, M., Brake, A.J and Julius, D. (1999) Nature 398, 436-441]. It is one of the six members of the vanilloid-like TRP-channel family which is now termed the TRPV family [Montell, G., Birnbaumer, L., Flockerzi, V., Bindels, R.J., Brutford, E.A., Caterina, M.J., Clapham, D.E., Harteneck, C., Heller, S., Julius, D., Kojima, I., Mori, Y., Penner, R., Prawitt, D., Scharenberg, A.M., Schultz, G., Shimizu, N. and Zhu, M.X. (2002) Mol. Cell 2, 229-231]. As it is a temperature-gated channel, VRL-1 appears to be functionally related to VR1. In contrast to VR1, VRL-1 is activated at a higher temperature threshold and it does not respond to capsaicin or protons. Here we describe the expression of VRL-1 in the rat dorsal root ganglion-derived cell line F-11, a hybridoma of mouse neuroblastoma (N18TG2) and rat dorsal root ganglion cells. We found by RT-PCR that F-11 cells express not only the rat VRL-1, but also its mouse orthologue in a single cell. The F-11 parental cell line N18TG2 also expressed murine VRL-1. Due to its neuronal character, the DRG-derived F-11 cell line provides an experimental system for the study of VRL-1 biochemistry. However, one has to be aware that both the mouse and the rat protein are expressed simultaneously. Furthermore we cloned VRL-1 from rat brain and analyzed its glycosylation and localization in comparison to the endogenously expressed protein in F-11 cells. In contrast to the endogenous VRL-1 the overexpressed protein is glycosylated. Similar to VR1 the glycosylation is N-linked as shown by an deglycosylation assay. Immunofluorescence analysis of the endogenous VRL-1 in F-11 cells gives only weak signals in the cytoplasm whereas the overexpressed rat VRL-1 appears mainly at the plasma membrane.

Structure-activity relationships of methoctramine-related polyamines as muscular nicotinic receptor noncompetitive antagonists. 3. Effect of inserting the tetraamine backbone into a macrocyclic structure.

The present article expands on the study of another aspect of structure-activity relationships of the polymethylene tetraamines, namely, the effect of inserting the tetraamine backbone into a macrocyclic structure. To this end, compounds 8-12 were designed by linking the two terminal nitrogen atoms of prototype methoctramine 2 to an aryl moiety. Alternatively, 2 was first modified to achieve compounds 6 and 7, which in turn were cyclized by linking the two terminal primary amine functions to a polyphenyl spacer, affording 13-20. All the compounds were tested on muscle-type nAChRs and most of them as well on AChE. Furthermore, selected compounds were tested also on peripheral M(2) and M(3) mAChRs. All these cyclic derivatives, like prototypes, were potent noncompetitive antagonists at both frog and Torpedo nAChRs, suggesting that polyamines do not need to be linear or in extended conformation to optimally interact with the nicotinic channel; rather, they may bind in a U-shaped conformation. Relative to muscarinic activity, macrocyclic compounds 10, 13, 14, and 20, in contrast with the profile displayed by 2, were almost devoid of affinity. It is derived that an aryl spacer is detrimental to the interaction of polyamines with mAChRs. Finally, all the diamine diamides investigated in this study were much less potent in inhibiting AChE activity than prototype 3, suggesting that a macrocyclic structure may not be suitable for AChE inhibition.

Identification of PSF as a protein kinase Calpha-binding protein in the cell nucleus.

Protein kinase C (PKC) isoforms are present in the cell nucleus in diverse cell lines and tissues. Since little is known about proteins interacting with PKC inside the cell nucleus, we used Neuro-2a neuroblastoma cells, in which PKCalpha is present in the nucleus, to screen for nuclear binding partners for PKC. Applying overlay assays, we detected several nuclear proteins which bind to PKCalpha. Specificity of binding was shown by its dependence on PKC activation by phorbol ester, calcium, and phosphatidylserine. The PKC-binding proteins were partially purified and analyzed by microsequencing and mass spectrometry. Four proteins could be identified: PTB-associated splicing factor (PSF), p68 RNA helicase, and the heterogeneous nuclear ribonucleoprotein (hnRNP) proteins A3 and L. In the case of PSF, binding to PKC could also be demonstrated in a GST-pull-down assay using GST-PKCalpha, expressed in insect cells. Phosphorylation experiments revealed that PSF is a weak in vitro substrate for PKCalpha.

Structure-activity relationships of methoctramine-related polyamines as muscular nicotinic receptor noncompetitive antagonists. 2. Role of polymethylene chain lengths separating amine functions and of substituents on the terminal nitrogen atoms.

Polymethylene tetraamine methoctramine (1) is a prototypical antimuscarinic ligand endowed with a significant affinity for muscular nAChRs. Thus, according to the universal template approach, structural modifications were performed on 1 in order to improve affinity and selectivity for the muscle-type nAChR. The polyamine derivatives synthesized were tested at both frog rectus and Torpedo nAChRs and at guinea pig left atria (M(2)) and ileum longitudinal muscle (M(3)) mAChRs. All of the compounds, like prototype 1, were noncompetitive antagonists of nicotinic receptors while being competitive antagonists at M(2) and M(3) mAChRs. The biological profile of polyamines 4-7 revealed that increasing the number of amine functions and the chain length separating these nitrogen atoms led to a significant improvement in potency at nAChRs. Moreover, the role of the number and type of amine functions in the interaction with nAChRs was further investigated through the synthesis of compounds 9 and 10. Tetraamines 8 and 11, bearing a rather rigid spacer between the nitrogen atoms instead of the very flexible polymethylene chain, displayed a profile similar to that of 1 at nAChRs, whereas a significant decrease in potency was observed at mAChRs. Tetraamine 12, bearing a 2-methoxyphenethyl group, was less potent than 1, whereas tetraamine 13, carrying a diphenylethyl moiety, was more potent than 1, confirming that an increase in size of the hydrophobic group on the terminal nitrogen atoms increases significantly the binding affinity for nAChRs. Tetraamines 14-17 were significantly more potent than prototype 2 at both frog rectus and Torpedo nAChRs, confirming that an increase in the distance between the amine functions results in a parallel increase in the affinity for nAChRs. To gain insight into the mode of interaction of polymethylene tetraamines with nAChRs, photolabile (19 and 20) and fluorescent (21 and 22) compounds were synthesized. A most intriguing finding was the observation that 19, which bears two identical azido groups on the terminal nitrogen atoms, was found to bind the Torpedo nAChR with a 1:1 stoichiometry, suggesting a U-shaped conformation in the receptor interaction. Moreover, the high potency shown by fluorescent compounds 21 and 22 appears promising for a further characterization of the polymethylene tetraamines binding site with the muscle-type nAChR.

Activation by acidic pH of CLC-7 expressed in oocytes from Xenopus laevis.

ClC chloride channels are important in diverse physiological functions such as transepithelial transport, cell volume regulation, excitability, and acidification of intracellular organelles. We have investigated the expression of CLC-7 in oocytes from Xenopus laevis with the two electrode voltage clamp technique and Western blot analysis. Using a specific antibody against CLC-7, we found an approximately 80 kDa protein in oocytes, previously injected with CLC-7-cRNA. In voltage clamp experiments on ClC-7-cRNA-injected oocytes, no current changes were detected at normal pH (7.4). However, acidification of the Ringer solution to pH values between 6 and 4 revealed strong currents which reversed at about -15 mV (30 mV positive to the normal resting potential) and showed strong outward rectification. We therefore suggest that ClC-7 in oocytes is a functional chloride current at acidic pH. Since ClC-7 is also found in neuronal tissues and was upregulated in a rat pain model, we suggest a role of CLC-7 also for nociception and pain.

Identification of orcokinins in single neurons in the stomatogastric nervous system of the crayfish, Cherax destructor.

The orcokinins are a highly conserved family of crustacean peptides that enhance hindgut contractions in the crayfish Orconectes limosus (Stangier et al. [1992] Peptides 13:859-864). By combining immunocytochemical and mass spectrometrical analysis of the stomatogastric nervous system (STNS) in the crayfish Cherax destructor, we show that multiple orcokinins are synthesized in single neurons. Immunocytochemistry demonstrated orcokinin-like immunoreactivity in all four ganglia of the STNS and in the pericardial organs, a major neurohaemal organ. Identified neurons in the STNS were stained, including a pair of modulatory interneurons (inferior ventricular nerve neuron, IVN), a neuron with its cell body in the stomatogastric ganglion that innervates cardiac muscle c6 via the anterior median nerves (AM-c6), and a sensory neuron (anterior gastric receptor neuron). Five orcokinin-related peptides were identified by matrix-assisted laser desorption ionization time of flight mass spectrometry (MALDI-TOF MS) post source decay fragmentation in samples of either the stomatogastric ganglion or the pericardial organs. Four of these peptides are identical to peptides derived from the cloned Procambarus clarkii precursor (Yasuda-Kamatani and Yasuda [2000] Gen. Comp. Endocrinol. 118:161-172), including the original [Asn(13)]-orcokinin (NFDEIDRSGFGFN, [M+H](+) = 1,517.7 Da), [Val(13)]-orcokinin ([M+H](+) = 1,502.7 Da), [Thr(8)-His(13)]-orcokinin ([M+H](+) = 1,554.8 Da), and FDAFTTGFGHS ([M+H](+) = 1,186.5 Da). The fifth peptide is a hitherto unknown orcokinin variant: [Ala(8)-Ala(13)]-orcokinin ([M+H](+) = 1,458.7 Da). The masses of all five peptides were also detected in the inferior ventricular nerve of C. destructor, which contains the cell bodies and axons of the IVNs as well as the axons of two other orcokinin-like immunoreactive neurons. In the oesophageal nerve, in which all the orcokinin-like immunoreactivity derives from the IVNs, at least two of the orcokinins were detected, indicating that multiple orcokinins are synthesized in these neurons. Similarly, all four orcokinin masses were detected in the anterior median nerves, in which all the orcokinin-like immunoreactivity derives from the AM-c6 neuron. This study therefore lays the groundwork to investigate the function of the orcokinin peptide family using single identified neurons in a well-studied system.

Ligand-Gated Ion Channels.

Ion channels are at the heart of many biological processes such as nerve activity and muscle contraction. How are their impressive ion selectivity and highly specialized gating brought about? In recent years, X-ray crystallography and high-resolution electron microscopy, as well as photo-affinity labeling and site-specific mutagenesis techniques in combination with patch-clamp electrophysiology have provided a detailed picture of some channel proteins. Herein we summarize the main structural and functional properties of channel proteins based on the advances made mainly within the last decade. We integrate these novel insights into a comprehensive description of the class of ligand-gated ion channels.

X-Ray Structure of Bacteriorhodopsin at 2.5 Å Resolution.

Microfocussed X-rays produced by an electron synchrotron were essential for the first structure elucidation of protein crystals having extremely small dimensions (5×20-40 µm). A further prerequisite for the successful crystal structure analysis of bacteriorhodopsin was a novel crystallization method using a lipid matrix. These methodological breakthroughs pave the way for further advances in structure determinations of membrane proteins.