Diffusion tensor imaging of the normal pediatric spinal cord using an inner field of view echo-planar imaging sequence.

BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE: DTI in the brain has been well established, but its application in the spinal cord, especially in pediatrics, poses several challenges. The small cord size has inherent low SNR of the diffusion signal intensity, respiratory and cardiac movements induce artifacts, and EPI sequences used for obtaining diffusion indices cause eddy-current distortions. The purpose of this study was to 1) evaluate the accuracy of cervical spinal cord DTI in children using a newly developed iFOV sequence with spatially selective 2D-RF excitations, and 2) examine reproducibility of the DTI measures. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Twenty-five typically developing subjects were imaged twice using a 3T scanner. Axial DTI images of the cervical spinal cord were acquired with this sequence. After motion correction, DTI indices were calculated using regions of interest manually drawn at every axial section location along the cervical spinal cord for both acquisitions. Various DTI indices were calculated: FA, AD, RD, MD, RA, and VR. Geometric diffusion measures were also calculated: Cp, Cl, and Cs. RESULTS: The following average values for each index were obtained: FA = 0.50 ± 0.11; AD = 0.97 ± 0.20 × 10(-3)mm(2)/s; RD = 0.41 ± 0.13 × 10(-3)mm(2)/s; MD = 0.59 ± 0.15 × 10(-3)mm(2)/s; RA = 0.35 ± 0.08; VR = 0.03 ± 0.00; Cp = 0.13 ± 0.07; Cl = 0.29 ± 0.09; and Cs = 0.58 ± 0.11. The reproducibility tests showed moderate to strong ICC in all subjects for all DTI parameters (ICC>0.72). CONCLUSIONS: This study showed that accurate and reproducible DTI parameters can be estimated in the pediatric cervical spinal cord using an iFOV EPI sequence.

Diffusion tensor imaging of the pediatric spinal cord at 1.5T: preliminary results.

BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE: Recent studies suggest that pediatric subjects as old as 8-years-of-age may have difficulty with the ISNCSCI examinations. Our aim was to investigate DTI parameters of healthy spinal cord in children with noncervical IS for comparison with children with SCI and to prospectively evaluate reliability measures of DTI and to correlate the measures obtained in children with SCI with the ISNCSCI. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Five controls with thoracic and lumbar IS and 5 children with cervical SCI were imaged twice by using a single-shot echo-planar diffusion-weighted sequence. Axial imaging was performed to cover the entire cervical spinal cord in controls. For the SCI subjects, 2 vertebral bodies above and below the injury were imaged. FA and D values were obtained at different levels of the cervical spinal cord. All subjects with SCI had undergone ISNCSCI clinical examinations. Statistical analysis was performed to access differences of the DTI indices between the controls and SCI subjects, reproducibility measurements, and correlations between DTI and ISNCSCI. RESULTS: Subjects with SCI showed reduced FA and increased D values compared with controls. Test-retest reproducibility showed good ICC coefficients in all the DTI index values among controls (≥0.9), while the SCI group showed moderate ICC (≥0.77). There were statistically significant correlations between the various DTI indices and ISNCSCI scores. CONCLUSIONS: Preliminary DTI indices in children were determined and showed good reproducibility. Reduced FA and increased D values were seen in children with SCI in comparison with controls and showed good clinical correlation with ISNCSCI examinations.

Effects of caudolateral neostriatal ablations on pain-related behaviour in the chicken.

As a measure of pain-related behaviour, beak guarding was investigated by recording the pecking response of adult chickens to a visually attractive stimulus before and after bilateral suction ablation of the caudolateral neostriatum (CLN). Two control groups of birds were used: a sham-operated group and an ablated group, in which the ablation was confined to the rostral dorsolateral telencephalon. Comparing the birds that had undergone ablation with the sham-operated controls showed that the ablation did not affect pecking behaviour. Five days after ablation, all birds were subjected to partial amputation of one third of the beak. A significant reduction in pecking behaviour (beak-guarding) was observed in both control groups, but was not observed in those birds that had previously received CLN ablations. In a second experiment, where beak amputation preceeded CLN ablation by 6 days, ablation did not affect the reduced pecking. The absence of guarding or other pain-related behaviours would indicate that an intact CLN was necessary for these behaviours to develop but, once they had developed, ablation had no effect.

Projections of ankle joint afferents to the spinal cord and brainstem of the chicken (Gallus g. domesticus).

The projections of the ankle joint capsule afferents were studied by transganglionic transport of horseradish peroxidase injected directly into the ankle joint. The number and size of the labelled dorsal root ganglion cells were measured from synsacral nerves 2-9. In the dorsal root ganglia, all sizes of sensory neurones were labelled, and the largest number of labelled cells was in ganglia 5-7. The extensive sympathetic innervation of the ankle joint was identified by the large number of cell bodies labelled in the sympathetic ganglia of the paravertebral chain. Labelled afferent fibres projected to the spinal cord from the 2nd to the 8th synsacral nerves, with the rostral projection mainly via Lissauer's tract and the dorsal funiculus. Terminal labelling in the dorsal horn was identified in laminae I-III and VI, with a slight projection to V. Two areas of dense labelling, which did not correspond with the largest number of labelled dorsal root ganglion cells, were identified. A rostral area with the highest density of label was observed at the level of synsacral nerves 3-4 and a second slightly less dense area between synsacral nerves 7-8. In the caudal medulla, diffuse terminal labelling was observed in the nucleus gracilis et cuneatus, nucleus of the tractus solitarius, and the nucleus cuneatus externus. These results are discussed in a comparative context to identify similarities and differences between different primary afferent projections in birds and mammals and to highlight the possible functional significance of the avian articular afferent projection.

Neurogenic inflammation in the chicken (Gallus gallus var domesticus).

1. Neurogenic inflammation has been studied in the anaesthetized adult hen using a variety of different stimuli. 2. Plasma extravasation was produced following antidromic stimulation of the external mandibular ramus of the trigeminal nerve which innervates the skin at the angle of the jaw and the anterior part of the wattle. 3. Stimulation of the wattle by external application of mustard oil, thermal and mechanical stimuli, as well as intradermal injection of substance P and bradykinin, all produced plasma extravasation. 4. These results demonstrate that, in contrast to previous findings in the pigeon, at least in the trigeminal of the chicken peripheral C-fibre nociceptors have similar physiological characteristics in relation to the neurogenic inflammatory mechanism to those seen in mammals.

The onset of pain related behaviours following partial beak amputation in the chicken.

The number of pecks delivered by birds to an attractive visual stimulus was measured before and again 6, 26 and 32 h after partial beak amputation. There was a significant reduction in the number of pecks by birds 26 h after amputation but not at 6 h after. This reduction was considered to be a quantitative measure of pain related guarding behaviour. The results indicated the presence of a pain-free period immediately following amputation which may last in some birds for as long as 26 h.

Physiological and behavioural responses associated with feather removal in Gallus gallus var domesticus.

Electroencephalographic, cardiovascular and behavioural parameters were examined in Gallus gallus var domesticus in response to feather removal. The progressive removal of feathers resulted in marked changes in the bird's behaviour from an alert agitated response following the initial removals to periods of crouching immobility following successive removals. During the periods of immobility the birds showed a high amplitude low frequency EEG pattern and successive removals resulted in a progressive increase in the total duration of this activity in the two minutes after removal. The heart rate response to feather removal was variable whereas the blood pressure always increased and this increase was followed by a gradual return to pre-stimulus levels. There were no consistent cardiovascular responses related to the immobility. It was concluded that feather removal is likely to be painful to the bird and feather removal by flockmates can be categorised as a welfare problem.

Haematological changes associated with food-related oral lesions in brown leghorn hens.

After 19 weeks on a mash diet nine of the 10 birds exhibited from two to 19 oral lesions. The majority of these lesions involved the total erosion of the buccal epidermis giving a total area of exposed dermis of 0.6 to 94.5 mm(2). This was accompanied by a significant reduction in the numbers of heterophils, monocytes and eosinophils. Birds with lesions also had significantly reduced concentrations of haemoglobin and may have been suffering from a mild form of microcytic normochromic anaemia without the complication of an extensive bone marrow involvement. These findings have implications for poultry welfare.