American Trauma Care: A System of Systems.

OBJECTIVE: The benefits of organized trauma systems have been well-documented during 50 years of trauma system development in the United States. Unfortunately, despite this evidence, trauma system development has occurred only sporadically in the 50 states. METHODS: The relevant literature related to trauma system design and development was reviewed based on relevance to the study. Information from these sources was summarized into a SWOT (strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, and threats) analysis. RESULTS: Strengths discovered were leadership brought forth by the American College of Surgeons Committee on Trauma and meaningful change generated from The National Academy of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine report addressing the fractionation of the nation's trauma systems, whereas weaknesses included patient outcome disparities due to the lack of a national governing authority, undertriage, underresourced rural trauma, and underfunded trauma research. Opportunities included the creation of level IV trauma centers; telemedicine; the development of rural trauma management courses; air medical transport to bring high-intensity care to the patient, particularly in rural areas; trauma research; and trauma prevention through outreach and educational programs. The following threats were determined: mass casualty incidents, motor vehicle collisions because of the high rate of motor vehicle collision deaths in the United States relative to other developed countries, and underfunded trauma systems. CONCLUSION: Much work remains to be done in the development of an American trauma system. Recommendations include implementation of trauma care governance at the federal level; national oversight and support of emergency medical services systems, particularly in rural areas with strict reporting processes for emergency medical services programs; national organization of our mass casualty response; increased federal and state funding allocated to trauma centers; a consistent model for trauma system development; and trauma research.

Safety of D-ß-Hydroxybutyrate and Melatonin for the Treatment of Hemorrhagic Shock With Polytrauma.

D-ß-hydroxybutyrate (BHB) and melatonin (M) treatment improves survival in animal models of hemorrhagic shock. Here, we evaluated the safety of BHB/M via 2 routes of administration in a porcine hemorrhagic shock/polytrauma model. Furthermore, we assessed BHB/M serum concentrations after intravenous and intraosseous infusion of different BHB/M doses in healthy pigs. Pigs underwent pulmonary contusion, liver injury, and hemorrhage. Injured animals were treated with an intravenous or intraosseous bolus of BHB/M or lactated Ringer's solution (LR), followed by 4 h of continuous infusion of the respective fluid (n = 12 per group). Pigs were resuscitated with LR (1 h) and then LR and shed blood (20 h). Physiological data and blood samples were analyzed throughout the experiment. In a second study, we infused healthy pigs intravenously or intraosseously with BHB/M at 3 different doses (n = 4 per group). There were no differences between groups in physiologic measurements (heart rate, mean arterial pressure, and cardiac output), organ function markers (alanine aminotransferase, aspartate aminotransferase, serum urea nitrogen, total creatinine kinase, and lactate dehydrogenase), or histopathology. The BHB/M-treated animals exhibited transient changes in blood Na, K, pH, and lactate. Differences in survival were not statistically significant. There was a trend toward decreased survival after intraosseous infusion, potentially related to lower circulating BHB and melatonin levels. Healthy pigs had higher drug serum concentrations after intravenous than after intraosseous infusion of BHB/M at the standard, but not the double dose. D-ß-hydroxybutyrate /M in doses previously shown to be associated with improved survival is safe in a porcine hemorrhagic shock/polytrauma model. Intravenous infusion is the preferred route of administration at standard doses.

Preinjury Fed State Alters the Physiologic Response in a Porcine Model of Hemorrhagic Shock and Polytrauma.

INTRODUCTION: Hemorrhagic shock and injury lead to dramatic changes in metabolic demands and continue to be a leading cause of death. We hypothesized that altering the preinjury metabolic state with a carbohydrate load prior to injury would affect subsequent metabolic responses to injury and lead to improved survival. METHODS: Sixty-four pigs were randomized to fasted (F) or carbohydrate prefeeding (CPF) groups and fasted 12 h prior to experiment. The CPF pigs received an oral carbohydrate load 1 h prior to anesthesia. All pigs underwent a standardized injury/hemorrhagic shock protocol. Physiologic parameters and laboratory values were obtained at set time points. RESULTS: Carbohydrate prefeeding did not convey a survival benefit; instead, CPF animals had greater mortality rates (47% vs. 28%; P = 0.153; log-rank [Mantel-Cox]). Carbohydrate prefeeding animals also had higher rates of acute lung injury (odds ratio, 4.23; 95% confidence interval, 1.1-16.3) and altered oxygen utilization. Prior to shock and throughout resuscitation, CPF animals had significantly higher serum glucose levels than did the F animals. CONCLUSIONS: Carbohydrate prefeeding did not provide a survival benefit to swine subjected to hemorrhagic shock and polytrauma. Carbohydrate prefeeding led to significantly different metabolic profile than in fasted animals, and prefeeding led to a greater incidence of lung injury, increased multiorgan dysfunction, and altered oxygen utilization.

Low StO2 measurements in surgical intensive care unit patients is associated with poor outcomes.

BACKGROUND: Near-infrared spectroscopy-derived tissue hemoglobin saturation (StO2) is a noninvasive measurement that reflects changes in microcirculatory tissue perfusion. Previous studies in trauma patients have shown a correlation between low StO2 levels and mortality, organ failure, and severity of injury. The goals of this study were to identify the incidence of low StO2 in the critically ill patient population of a surgical intensive care unit (SICU) and evaluate the relationship of low StO2 and clinical outcomes. METHODS: We conducted a prospective cohort study at the University of Minnesota Medical Center. After institutional review board approval, 620 patients admitted to the SICU between July 2010 and July 2011 were screened for enrollment. Patients with an expected ICU length of stay of less than 24 hours were excluded. In the 490 patients who met inclusion criteria, StO2 measurements were obtained from the thenar eminence one to three times daily for the length of the ICU stay, up to 14 days. Outcome data included 28-day hospital mortality; ICU readmission; ventilator-free, ICU-free, and hospital-free days; and the need for lifesaving interventions. RESULTS: The overall incidence of low StO2 (<70%) was 11% of the patients per day. Patients with at least 1 day in the SICU with an StO2 measurement of less than 70% had higher rates of ICU readmission and fewer ventilator-free, ICU-free, and hospital-free days compared with those who did not. Mortality (28-day in-hospital) trended higher for these patients but was not statistically significant. An increase in the number of days with StO2 less than 70% was also associated with fewer ventilator-free, ICU-free, and hospital-free days. CONCLUSION: Low StO2 (<70%) is common and associated with poor outcomes in SICU patients. Near-infrared spectroscopy represents a potentially useful, noninvasive adjunct to monitoring of critically ill patients. LEVEL OF EVIDENCE: Prognostic study, level II.

Intensivists improve outcomes and compliance with process measures in critically ill patients.

BACKGROUND: Specialty-trained intensivist involvement in the care of critically ill patients has been associated with improved outcomes; however, the factors contributing to this observation are unknown. We hypothesized that intensivist-led ICU care would result in decreased mortality, length of stay, and rate of deep venous thrombosis/pulmonary embolism along with improved compliance with ICU process measures. STUDY DESIGN: We performed a retrospective review of 847 patients using the October 2008 transition at a regional medical center from an open ICU to a model in which board-certified intensivists assume primary responsibility or co-management of all critically ill patients. Included in the analysis were patients admitted to the ICU during the 3 months immediately before the transition (June to September 2008) and a 3-month period 1 year later (June to September 2009). End points included mortality, length of stay, and deep venous thrombosis/pulmonary embolism rates, as well as several ICU process measures. RESULTS: Patients in the post-intensivist cohort had a shorter hospital length of stay (7.4 days vs 8.7 days; p = 0.009) and a trend toward decreased mortality (9.3% vs 13.3%; p = 0.086). Patients also received timely initiation of deep venous thrombosis prophylaxis more frequently and tended toward more frequent timely initiation of nutritional support. Patients in the post-intensivist cohort admitted to the ICU with sepsis demonstrated a significant decrease in mortality (11.4% vs 35.0%, p = 0.010), both overall and in patients with APACHE II scores >20. CONCLUSIONS: Intensivist-led ICU care is associated with improved outcomes in patients with sepsis and possibly in all ICU patients. Compliance with selected evidence-based practices improved. Additional study is needed to understand the mechanisms by which the intensivist model improves outcomes.

Environmental hypothermia in porcine polytrauma and hemorrhagic shock is safe.

We have previously demonstrated survival benefit to induced hypothermia in a porcine model of controlled hemorrhagic shock simulating an associated delay to definitive care. In the current study, we wished to evaluate the effects of environmental hypothermia in a porcine model of hemorrhagic shock with the addition of polytrauma. Sixteen pigs were randomized to normothermic (39°C, n = 7) or hypothermic (34°C, n = 9) groups. The model included instrumentation, chest injury (captive bolt device), hemorrhage to systolic blood pressure (SBP) of ∼50 mmHg, and crush liver injury. Animals received limited fluid resuscitation for a 1-h period with goal SBP of greater than 80 mmHg and ice packs or warming blankets to achieve goal temperatures, followed by full resuscitation with goal SBP of greater than 90 mmHg, adequate urine output, and hemoglobin by protocol for 20 h. Survivors were observed for an additional 24 h with end points including mortality, markers of organ injury, and neurologic function. There were no differences in survival between the groups (mortality = 1/9, hypothermia group vs. 2/7, normothermia group, P = 0.39). Markers of organ injury were elevated in the hypothermia group at 24 h after injury but were identical between groups at the end of the experimental protocol (48 h after injury). There were no noted differences in neurologic function between the two groups. Environmental hypothermia in a model of polytrauma and hemorrhagic shock was not associated with worse outcomes.

Total pancreatectomy and islet auto-transplantation as treatment for ampullary adenocarcinoma in the setting of pancreatic ductal disruption secondary to acute necrotizing pancreatitis. A case report.

CONTEXT: Ampullary adenocarcinoma is the third most common periampullary malignancy. Obstruction of the main pancreatic duct is linked with an increased incidence of acute pancreatitis. Acute necrotizing pancreatitis leading to pancreatic duct disruption carries significant morbidity. When these conditions occur in combination, the treatment can be drastically limited as pancreaticoduodenectomy is not a viable option in the setting of friable ductal tissue, which precludes pancreatic ductal anastomosis and can lead to the complications of leak or stricture. CASE REPORT: Our patient is a 72-year-old woman who developed pancreatic ductal disruption and splenic vein thrombosis as a result of acute necrotizing pancreatitis. Concurrently, she was found to have an ampullary adenoma with high-grade dysplasia. Her treatment options were limited, as she was neither a candidate for pancreaticoduodenectomy given the ductal disruption nor total pancreatectomy, which would render her a brittle diabetic. She was successfully treated with total pancreatectomy and islet auto-transplantation thereby resecting her ampullary lesion while both avoiding a pancreatic anastomosis and preserving pancreatic endocrine beta-cell function. CONCLUSION: We report a case where total pancreatectomy and islet auto-transplantation can be considered as a viable option for treatment of ampullary lesions in a setting where standard surgical options are suboptimal.

Acute correction of hyponatremia secondary to psychogenic polydipsia.

BACKGROUND: Psychogenic polydipsia is prevalent amongst psychiatric patients, but less common in the general population. Generally, hyponatremia ensues with complications of cerebral edema resulting in confusion, seizures, coma, and death. Rapid correction of serum sodium levels can lead to further complications of osmotic demyelination of neurons, e.g. central pontine myelinolysis. CASE REPORT: We present a case of a 32-year-old male who presented with seizures while being treated at a drug rehabilitation facility. He was discovered to be hyponatremic secondary to suspected psychogenic polydipsia. The patient impressively responded to treatment of fluid restriction and desmopressin and symptoms improved. CONCLUSIONS: Among the causes of hyponatremia, psychogenic polydipsia may be more difficult to diagnose especially if an apparent psychiatric condition is not present. Current literature supports cautious correction of hyponatremia to prevent complications. However, rapid corrections may be driven by the physiology of the patient and may not be avoidable. Fortunately, our case illustrates rapid, positive outcomes for the patient.