A human lectin array for characterizing host-pathogen interactions.

A human lectin array has been developed to probe the interactions of innate immune receptors with pathogenic and commensal micro-organisms. Following the successful introduction of a lectin array containing all of the cow C-type carbohydrate-recognition domains (CRDs), a human array described here contains the C-type CRDs as well as CRDs from other classes of sugar-binding receptors, including galectins, siglecs, R-type CRDs, ficolins, intelectins and chitinase-like lectins. The array is constructed with CRDs modified with single-site biotin tags, ensuring that the sugar-binding sites in CRDs are displayed on a streptavidin-coated surface in a defined orientation and are accessible to the surfaces of microbes. A common approach used for expression and display of CRDs from all of the different structural categories of glycan-binding receptors allows comparisons across lectin families. In addition to previously documented protocols for binding of fluorescently-labeled bacteria, methods have been developed for detecting unlabeled bacteria bound to the array by counter-staining with DNA-binding dye. Screening has also been undertaken with viral glycoproteins and bacterial and fungal polysaccharides. The array provides an unbiased screen for sugar ligands that interact with receptors and many show binding not anticipated from earlier studies. For example, some of the galectins bind with high affinity to bacterial glycans that lack lactose or N-acetyllactosamine. The results demonstrate the utility of the human lectin array for providing a unique overview of the interactions of multiple classes of glycan-binding proteins in the innate immune system with different types of micro-organisms.

Characterisation of the bovine C-type lectin receptor Mincle and potential evidence for an endogenous ligand.

Innate immune receptors that form complexes with secondary receptors, activating multiple signalling pathways, modulate cellular activation and play essential roles in regulating homeostasis and immunity. We have previously identified a variety of bovine C-type lectin-like receptors that possess similar functionality than their human orthologues. Mincle (CLEC4E), a heavily glycosylated monomer, is involved in the recognition of the mycobacterial component Cord factor (trehalose 6,6'-dimycolate). Here we characterise the bovine homologue of Mincle (boMincle), and demonstrate that the receptor is structurally and functionally similar to the human orthologue (huMincle), although there are some notable differences. In the absence of cross-reacting antibodies, boMincle-specific antibodies were created and used to demonstrate that, like the human receptor, boMincle is predominantly expressed by myeloid cells. BoMincle surface expression increases during the maturation of monocytes to macrophages. However, boMincle mRNA transcripts were also detected in granulocytes, B cells, and T cells. Finally, we show that boMincle binds to isolated bovine CD4+ T cells in a specific manner, indicating the potential to recognise endogenous ligands. This suggests that the receptor might also play a role in homeostasis in cattle.

Structural analysis of carbohydrate binding by the macrophage mannose receptor CD206.

The human mannose receptor expressed on macrophages and hepatic endothelial cells scavenges released lysosomal enzymes, glycopeptide fragments of collagen, and pathogenic microorganisms and thus reduces damage following tissue injury. The receptor binds mannose, fucose, or N-acetylglucosamine (GlcNAc) residues on these targets. C-type carbohydrate-recognition domain 4 (CRD4) of the receptor contains the site for Ca2+-dependent interaction with sugars. To investigate the details of CRD4 binding, glycan array screening was used to identify oligosaccharide ligands. The strongest signals were for glycans that contain either Manα1-2Man constituents or fucose in various linkages. The mechanisms of binding to monosaccharides and oligosaccharide substructures present in many of these ligands were examined in multiple crystal structures of CRD4. Binding of mannose residues to CRD4 results primarily from interaction of the equatorial 3- and 4-OH groups with a conserved principal Ca2+ common to almost all sugar-binding C-type CRDs. In the Manα1-2Man complex, supplementary interactions with the reducing mannose residue explain the enhanced affinity for this disaccharide. Bound GlcNAc also interacts with the principal Ca2+ through equatorial 3- and 4-OH groups, whereas fucose residues can bind in several orientations, through either the 2- and 3-OH groups or the 3- and 4-OH groups. Secondary contacts with additional sugars in fucose-containing oligosaccharides, such as the Lewis-a trisaccharide, provide enhanced affinity for these glycans. These results explain many of the biologically important interactions of the mannose receptor with both mammalian glycoproteins and microbes such as yeast and suggest additional classes of ligands that have not been previously identified.

Mammalian lectin arrays for screening host-microbe interactions.

Many members of the C-type lectin family of glycan-binding receptors have been ascribed roles in the recognition of microorganisms and serve as key receptors in the innate immune response to pathogens. Other mammalian receptors have become targets through which pathogens enter target cells. These receptor roles have often been documented with binding studies involving individual pairs of receptors and microorganisms. To provide a systematic overview of interactions between microbes and the large complement of C-type lectins, here we developed a lectin array and suitable protocols for labeling of microbes that could be used to probe this array. The array contains C-type lectins from cow, chosen as a model organism of agricultural interest for which the relevant pathogen-receptor interactions have not been previously investigated in detail. Screening with yeast cells and various strains of both Gram-positive and -negative bacteria revealed distinct binding patterns, which in some cases could be explained by binding to lipopolysaccharides or capsular polysaccharides, but in other cases they suggested the presence of novel glycan targets on many of the microorganisms. These results are consistent with interactions previously ascribed to the receptors, but they also highlight binding to additional sugar targets that have not previously been recognized. Our findings indicate that mammalian lectin arrays represent unique discovery tools for identifying both novel ligands and new receptor functions.

CD23 is a glycan-binding receptor in some mammalian species.

CD23, the low-affinity IgE receptor found on B lymphocytes and other cells, contains a C-terminal lectin-like domain that resembles C-type carbohydrate-recognition domains (CRDs) found in many glycan-binding receptors. In most mammalian species, the CD23 residues required to form a sugar-binding site are present, although binding of CD23 to IgE does not involve sugars. Solid-phase binding competition assays, glycoprotein blotting experiments, and glycan array analysis employing the lectin-like domains of cow and mouse CD23 demonstrate that they bind to mannose, GlcNAc, glucose, and fucose and to glycoproteins that bear these sugars in nonreducing terminal positions. Crystal structures of the cow CRD in the presence of α-methyl mannoside and GlcNAcß1-2Man reveal that a range of oligosaccharide ligands can be accommodated in an open binding site in which most interactions are with a single terminal sugar residue. Although mouse CD23 shows a pattern of monosaccharide and glycoprotein binding similar to cow CD23, the binding is weaker. In contrast, no sugar binding was observed in similar experiments with human CD23. The absence of sugar-binding activity correlates with accumulation of mutations in the gene for CD23 in the primate lineage leading to humans, resulting in loss of key sugar-binding residues. These results are consistent with a role for CD23 in many species as a receptor for potentially pathogenic microorganisms as well as IgE. However, the ability of CD23 to bind several different ligands varies between species, suggesting that it has distinct functions in different organisms.

Identification of serum glycoprotein ligands for the immunomodulatory receptor blood dendritic cell antigen 2.

Blood dendritic cell antigen 2 (BDCA-2) is a C-type lectin found on the surface of plasmacytoid dendritic cells. It functions as a glycan-binding receptor that downregulates the production of type I interferons and thus plays a role in oligosaccharide-mediated immunomodulation. The carbohydrate recognition domain in BDCA-2 binds selectively to galactose-terminated bi-antennary glycans. Because the plasmacytoid dendritic cells function in a plasma environment rich in glycoproteins, experiments have been undertaken to identify endogenous ligands for blood dendritic cell antigen 2. A combination of blotting, affinity chromatography and proteomic analysis reveals that serum glycoprotein ligands for BDCA-2 include IgG, IgA and IgM. Compared to binding of IgG, which was previously described, IgA and IgM bind with higher affinity. The association constants for the different subclasses of immunoglobulins are below and roughly proportional to the serum concentrations of these glycoprotein ligands. Binding to the other main serum glycoprotein ligand, α2-macroglobulin, is independent of whether this protease inhibitor is activated. Binding to all of these glycoprotein ligands is mediated predominantly by bi-antennary glycans in which each branch bears a terminal galactose residue. The different affinities of the glycoprotein ligands reflect the different numbers of these galactose-terminated glycans and their degree of exposure on the native glycoproteins. The results suggest that normal serum levels of immunoglobulins could downmodulate interferon stimulation of further antibody production.

Insights into Interactions of Mycobacteria with the Host Innate Immune System from a Novel Array of Synthetic Mycobacterial Glycans.

An array of homogeneous glycans representing all the major carbohydrate structures present in the cell wall of the human pathogen Mycobacterium tuberculosis and other mycobacteria has been probed with a panel of glycan-binding receptors expressed on cells of the mammalian innate immune system. The results provide an overview of interactions between mycobacterial glycans and receptors that mediate uptake and survival in macrophages, dendritic cells, and sinusoidal endothelial cells. A subset of the wide variety of glycan structures present on mycobacterial surfaces interact with cells of the innate immune system through the receptors tested. Endocytic receptors, including the mannose receptor, DC-SIGN, langerin, and DC-SIGNR (L-SIGN), interact predominantly with mannose-containing caps found on the mycobacterial polysaccharide lipoarabinomannan. Some of these receptors also interact with phosphatidyl-myo-inositol mannosides and mannose-containing phenolic glycolipids. Many glycans are ligands for overlapping sets of receptors, suggesting multiple, redundant routes by which mycobacteria can enter cells. Receptors with signaling capability interact with two distinct sets of mycobacterial glycans: targets for dectin-2 overlap with ligands for the mannose-binding endocytic receptors, while mincle binds exclusively to trehalose-containing structures such as trehalose dimycolate. None of the receptors surveyed bind furanose residues, which often form part of the epitopes recognized by antibodies to mycobacteria. Thus, the innate and adaptive immune systems can target different sets of mycobacterial glycans. This array, the first of its kind, represents an important new tool for probing, at a molecular level, biological roles of a broad range of mycobacterial glycans, a task that has not previously been possible.

Mechanism of pathogen recognition by human dectin-2.

Dectin-2, a C-type lectin on macrophages and other cells of the innate immune system, functions in response to pathogens, particularly fungi. The carbohydrate-recognition domain (CRD) in dectin-2 is linked to a transmembrane sequence that interacts with the common Fc receptor γ subunit to initiate immune signaling. The molecular mechanism by which dectin-2 selectively binds to pathogens has been investigated by characterizing the CRD expressed in a bacterial system. Competition binding studies indicated that the CRD binds to monosaccharides with modest affinity and that affinity was greatly enhanced for mannose-linked α1-2 or α1-4 to a second mannose residue. Glycan array analysis confirmed selective binding of the CRD to glycans that contain Manα1-2Man epitopes. Crystals of the CRD in complex with a mammalian-type high-mannose Man9GlcNAc2 oligosaccharide exhibited interaction with Manα1-2Man on two different termini of the glycan, with the reducing-end mannose residue ligated to Ca2+ in a primary binding site and the nonreducing terminal mannose residue occupying an adjacent secondary site. Comparison of the binding sites in DC-SIGN and langerin, two other pathogen-binding receptors of the innate immune system, revealed why these two binding sites accommodate only terminal Manα1-2Man structures, whereas dectin-2 can bind Manα1-2Man in internal positions in mannans and other polysaccharides. The specificity and geometry of the dectin-2-binding site provide the molecular mechanism for binding of dectin-2 to fungal mannans and also to bacterial lipopolysaccharides, capsular polysaccharides, and lipoarabinomannans that contain the Manα1-2Man disaccharide unit.

Binding Sites for Acylated Trehalose Analogs of Glycolipid Ligands on an Extended Carbohydrate Recognition Domain of the Macrophage Receptor Mincle.

The macrophage receptor mincle binds to trehalose dimycolate on the surface of Mycobacterium tuberculosis Signaling initiated by this interaction leads to cytokine production, which underlies the ability of mycobacteria to evade the immune system and also to function as adjuvants. In previous work the mechanism for binding of the sugar headgroup of trehalose dimycolate to mincle has been elucidated, but the basis for enhanced binding to glycolipid ligands, in which hydrophobic substituents are attached to the 6-hydroxyl groups, has been the subject of speculation. In the work reported here, the interaction of trehalose derivatives with bovine mincle has been probed with a series of synthetic mimics of trehalose dimycolate in binding assays, in structural studies by x-ray crystallography, and by site-directed mutagenesis. Binding studies reveal that, rather than reflecting specific structural preference, the apparent affinity of mincle for ligands with hydrophobic substituents correlates with their overall size. Structural and mutagenesis analysis provides evidence for interaction of the hydrophobic substituents with multiple different portions of the surface of mincle and confirms the presence of three Ca2+-binding sites. The structure of an extended portion of the extracellular domain of mincle, beyond the minimal C-type carbohydrate recognition domain, also constrains the way the binding domains may interact on the surface of macrophages.

A Novel Mechanism for Binding of Galactose-terminated Glycans by the C-type Carbohydrate Recognition Domain in Blood Dendritic Cell Antigen 2.

Blood dendritic cell antigen 2 (BDCA-2; also designated CLEC4C or CD303) is uniquely expressed on plasmacytoid dendritic cells. Stimulation of BDCA-2 with antibodies leads to an anti-inflammatory response in these cells, but the natural ligands for the receptor are not known. The C-type carbohydrate recognition domain in the extracellular portion of BDCA-2 contains a signature motif typical of C-type animal lectins that bind mannose, glucose, or GlcNAc, yet it has been reported that BDCA-2 binds selectively to galactose-terminated, biantennary N-linked glycans. A combination of glycan array analysis and binding competition studies with monosaccharides and natural and synthetic oligosaccharides have been used to define the binding epitope for BDCA-2 as the trisaccharide Galß1-3/4GlcNAcß1-2Man. X-ray crystallography and mutagenesis studies show that mannose is ligated to the conserved Ca(2+) in the primary binding site that is characteristic of C-type carbohydrate recognition domains, and the GlcNAc and galactose residues make additional interactions in a wide, shallow groove adjacent to the primary binding site. As predicted from these studies, BDCA-2 binds to IgG, which bears galactose-terminated glycans that are not commonly found attached to other serum glycoproteins. Thus, BDCA-2 has the potential to serve as a previously unrecognized immunoglobulin Fc receptor.

Mouse mincle: characterization as a model for human mincle and evolutionary implications.

Mincle, the macrophage-inducible C-type lectin also known as CLEC-4E, binds to the mycobacterial glycolipid trehalose dimycolate and initiates a signaling cascade by serving as a receptor for Mycobacterium tuberculosis and other pathogenic mycobacterial species. Studies of the biological functions of human mincle often rely on mouse models, based on the assumption that the biological properties of the mouse receptor mimic those of the human protein. Experimental support for this assumption has been obtained by expression of the carbohydrate-recognition domain of mouse mincle and characterization of its interaction with small molecule analogs of trehalose dimycolate. The results confirm that the ligand-binding properties of mouse mincle closely parallel those of the human receptor. These findings are consistent with the conservation of key amino acid residues that have been shown to form the ligand-binding site in human and cow mincle. Sequence alignment reveals that these residues are conserved in a wide range of mammalian species, suggesting that mincle has a conserved function in binding ligands that may include endogenous mammalian glycans or pathogen glycans in addition to trehalose dimycolate.

Defining the conformation of human mincle that interacts with mycobacterial trehalose dimycolate.

Trehalose dimycolate, an unusual glycolipid in the outer membrane of Mycobacterium tuberculosis, stimulates macrophages by binding to the macrophage receptor mincle. This stimulation plays an important role both in infection by mycobacteria and in the use of derivatives of mycobacteria as adjuvants to enhance the immune response. The mechanism of trehalose dimycolate binding to the C-type carbohydrate-recognition domain in human mincle has been investigated using a series of synthetic analogs of trehalose dimycolate and site-directed mutagenesis of the human protein. The results support a mechanism of binding acylated trehalose derivatives to human mincle that is very similar to the mechanism of binding to bovine mincle, in which one glucose residue in the trehalose headgroup of the glycolipid is ligated to the principle Ca(2+)-binding site in the carbohydrate-recognition domain, with specificity for the disaccharide resulting from interactions with the second glucose residue. Acyl chains attached to the 6-OH groups of trehalose enhance affinity, with the affinity dependent on the length of the acyl chains and the presence of a hydrophobic groove adjacent to the sugar-binding sites. The results indicate that the available crystal structure of the carbohydrate-recognition domain of human mincle is unlikely to be in a fully active conformation. Instead, the ligand-binding conformation probably resembles closely the structure observed for bovine mincle in complex with trehalose. These studies provide a basis for targeting human mincle as a means of inhibiting interactions with mycobacteria and as an approach to harnessing the ability of mincle to stimulate the immune response.

Mechanism for recognition of an unusual mycobacterial glycolipid by the macrophage receptor mincle.

Binding of the macrophage lectin mincle to trehalose dimycolate, a key glycolipid virulence factor on the surface of Mycobacterium tuberculosis and Mycobacterium bovis, initiates responses that can lead both to toxicity and to protection of these pathogens from destruction. Crystallographic structural analysis, site-directed mutagenesis, and binding studies with glycolipid mimics have been used to define an extended binding site in the C-type carbohydrate recognition domain (CRD) of bovine mincle that encompasses both the headgroup and a portion of the attached acyl chains. One glucose residue of the trehalose Glcα1-1Glcα headgroup is liganded to a Ca(2+) in a manner common to many C-type CRDs, whereas the second glucose residue is accommodated in a novel secondary binding site. The additional contacts in the secondary site lead to a 36-fold higher affinity for trehalose compared with glucose. An adjacent hydrophobic groove, not seen in other C-type CRDs, provides a docking site for one of the acyl chains attached to the trehalose, which can be targeted with small molecule analogs of trehalose dimycolate that bind with 52-fold higher affinity than trehalose. The data demonstrate how mincle bridges between the surfaces of the macrophage and the mycobacterium and suggest the possibility of disrupting this interaction. In addition, the results may provide a basis for design of adjuvants that mimic the ability of mycobacteria to stimulate a response to immunization that can be employed in vaccine development.

Organization of the extracellular portion of the macrophage galactose receptor: a trimeric cluster of simple binding sites for N-acetylgalactosamine.

The properties of the human macrophage galactose receptor have been investigated. Specificity for N-acetylgalactosamine (GalNAc) residues with exposed 3- and 4-hydroxyl groups explains virtually all of the results obtained from a recently expanded array of synthetic glycans and is consistent with a model for the structure of the binding site. This simple interaction is sufficient to explain the ability of the receptor to bind to tumor-cell glycans bearing Tn and sialyl-Tn antigens, but not to more elaborate O-linked glycans that predominate on normal cells. This specificity also allows for binding of parasite glycans and screening of an array of bacterial outer membrane oligosaccharides confirms that the receptor binds to a subset of these structures with appropriately exposed GalNAc residues. A key feature of the receptor is the clustering of binding sites in the extracellular portion of the protein, which retains the trimeric structure observed in the cell membrane. Chemical crosslinking, gel filtration, circular dichroism analysis and differential scanning calorimetry demonstrate that this trimeric structure of the receptor is stabilized by an α-helical coiled coil that extends from the surface of the membrane to the globular carbohydrate-recognition domains. The helical neck domains form independent trimerization domains. Taken together, these results indicate that the macrophage galactose receptor shares many of the features of serum mannose-binding protein, in which clusters of monosaccharide-binding sites serve as detectors for a simple epitope that is not common on endogenous cell surface glycans but that is abundant on the surfaces of tumor cells and certain pathogens.

Prolectin, a glycan-binding receptor on dividing B cells in germinal centers.

Prolectin, a previously undescribed glycan-binding receptor, has been identified by re-screening of the human genome for genes encoding proteins containing potential C-type carbohydrate-recognition domains. Glycan array analysis revealed that the carbohydrate-recognition domain in the extracellular domain of the receptor binds glycans with terminal alpha-linked mannose or fucose residues. Prolectin expressed in fibroblasts is found at the cell surface, but unlike many glycan-binding receptors it does not mediate endocytosis of a neoglycoprotein ligand. However, compared with other known glycan-binding receptors, the receptor contains an unusually large intracellular domain that consists of multiple sequence motifs, including phosphorylated tyrosine residues, that allow it to interact with signaling molecules such as Grb2. Immunohistochemistry has been used to demonstrate that prolectin is expressed on a specialized population of proliferating B cells in germinal centers. Thus, this novel receptor has the potential to function in carbohydrate-mediated communication between cells in the germinal center.