Effects of hypothyroidism on the mesenteric and omental adipose tissue in rats.

To characterize the influence of hypothyroidism on the endocrine activity of mesenteric and omental adipose tissue (MOAT) and the peripheral regulation of energy balance (EB) in rats, we analyzed food intake (FI); basal metabolic rate (BMR); locomotor activity; body weight (BW); serum hormone concentrations and the expression of their receptors in MOAT. We evaluated the morphology and differentiation of adipocytes. Hypothyroidism decreased FI, BMR and BW. The percentage of visceral white adipose tissue (WAT) depots and the morphology of adipocytes were similar to euthyroid rats. Serum leptin and adiponectin expression in MOAT were altered by hypothyroidism. The expression of Perilipin 1, HSL, UCP1 and PRDM16 was significantly lower in MOAT of hypothyroid animals. Hypothyroidism in rats leads to a compensated EB by inducing a white adipocyte dysfunction and a decrease in BW, BMR, FI and adipokine secretions without changing the percentage of WAT depots and the morphology of the MOAT.

Prevention of maternal-fetal transmission of cytomegalovirus after primary maternal infection in the first trimester by biweekly hyperimmunoglobulin administration.

OBJECTIVE: To examine the efficacy of biweekly hyperimmunoglobulin (HIG) administration to prevent maternal-fetal transmission of cytomegalovirus (CMV) in women with primary first-trimester CMV infection. METHODS: This was a prospective observational study of women with confirmed primary CMV infection in the first trimester who had the first HIG administration at or before 14 weeks' gestation. All women had biweekly HIG treatment until 20 weeks' gestation at a dose of 200 IU/kg of maternal body weight. Each subject underwent amniocentesis at least 6 weeks after first presentation at about 20 weeks. Primary outcome was maternal-fetal transmission at the time of amniocentesis, and secondary outcome was the frequency of congenital CMV infection at birth. The results were compared with a historic cohort of women with first-trimester CMV infection who did not undergo HIG treatment and who had amniocentesis at about 20 weeks. RESULTS: Subjects were 40 pregnant women with a primary CMV infection, with a median gestational age at first presentation of 9.6 (range, 5.1-14.3) weeks. On average, HIG administration started at 11.1 weeks and continued until 16.6 weeks. Within this interval, HIG was administered between two and six times in each patient. While CMV immunoglobulin-G (IgG) monitoring showed periodic fluctuations during biweekly HIG administration cycles, high CMV-IgG avidity indices remained stable over the whole treatment period. Maternal-fetal transmission before amniocentesis occurred in only one of the 40 cases (2.5% (95% CI, 0-13.2%)). At delivery, two additional subjects were found to have had late-gestation transmission. Considering all three cases with maternal-fetal transmission, the transmission rate was 7.5% (95% CI, 1.6-20.4%) in our 40 cases. All infected neonates were asymptomatic at birth. The matched historical control group consisted of 108 pregnancies. Thirty-eight transmissions (35.2% (95% CI, 26.2-45.0%)) occurred in the control group, which was significantly higher (P < 0.0001) than the transmission rate in the HIG treatment group. CONCLUSION: After a primary maternal CMV infection in the first trimester, biweekly HIG administration at a dose of 200 IU/kg prevents maternal-fetal transmission up to 20 weeks' gestation. Copyright © 2018 ISUOG. Published by John Wiley & Sons Ltd.

From visual to motor strategies: Training in mental rotation of hands.

Functional imaging studies on mental rotation of hands have consistently pointed to the importance of the motor network implying the use of motor simulations for task solving. There is some evidence that the putamen may be a critical modulator of processing egocentric spatial orientation in mental rotation of hands and implicit motor imagery strategies have been described involving hand motor areas. This recruitment of resources processing representations of the own body is used in therapeutic mental rotation training. However, studies are lacking that investigate training-induced changes on the neuronal level. We used functional MRI to study the effects of long-term training on the neuro-functional correlates of mental rotation of hands in healthy volunteers and compared the training group to a passive control group. From pre- to post training, we found a transition of activation from the anterior putamen in unskilled performance to the posterior putamen in skilled performance. We also found an increase in activation in motor cortices and the supramarginal gyrus after learning. By contrast, members of the control group showed no improvements in performance and no pre/post-test differences in cortical activity. In conclusion, these findings suggest that increased neural efficiency after training in mental rotation of hands manifests as a decrease in visual imagery in conjunction with increased recruitment of motor-related regions. This is consistent with the obtained behavioral effects depicting motor imagery mediating expertise in mental rotation of hands.

Individuals with inherited chromosomally integrated human herpes virus 6 (ciHHV-6) have functionally active HHV-6 specific T-cell immunity.

To evaluate the human herpes virus 6 (HHV-6) -specific immune response in individuals with chromosomally integrated HHV-6 (ciHHV-6), we measured HHV-6-antigen-specific cytokine responses (interferon-γ, interleukin-2, tumour necrosis factor-α) in T cells by flow cytometry in 12 and 16 individuals with and without ciHHV-6, respectively. All individuals with ciHHV-6 showed HHV-6-specific T cells with higher frequencies of HHV-6-specific CD8(+) cells (0.03-14.93, median 2.15% of CD8(+) cells) compared with non-ciHHV-6 (0.0-10.67, median 0.36%, p 0.026). The observed increased HHV-6-specific functionally active responses in individuals with ciHHV-6 clearly disprove speculations on immune tolerance in ciHHV-6 and indicate clinical and immunological implications of ciHHV-6.

Successful ganciclovir treatment of primary cytomegalovirus infection containing the UL97 mutation N510S in an intestinal graft recipient.

In solid organ transplantation, human cytomegalovirus (HCMV) is considered to be the most important viral pathogen. We report a case of a CMV R-/D+ small intestine transplant recipient with a primary CMV infection on valganciclovir prophylaxis. Sequencing of the HCMV DNA for drug resistance-associated mutations revealed the UL97 mutation N510S. This mutation has been initially reported to confer ganciclovir resistance. Based on in vitro recombinant phenotyping, this assumption has recently been questioned. Switching the antiviral treatment to an intravenous regimen of ganciclovir eliminated HCMV DNAemia, showing the in vivo efficacy of ganciclovir for the UL97 mutation N510S. Hence, knowledge of drug efficacy is crucial for an adequate choice of antiviral medication, carefully balancing antiviral potency versus the risk of harmful side effects.

Encoding and recall of finger sequences in experienced pianists compared with musically naïve controls: a combined behavioral and functional imaging study.

Long-term intensive sensorimotor training alters functional representation of the motor and sensory system and might even result in structural changes. However, there is not much knowledge about how previous training impacts learning transfer and functional representation. We tested 14 amateur pianists and 15 musically naïve participants in a short-term finger sequence training procedure, differing considerably from piano playing and measured associated functional representation with functional magnetic resonance imaging. The conditions consisted of encoding a finger sequence indicated by hand symbols ("sequence encoding") and subsequently replaying the sequence from memory, both with and without auditory feedback ("sequence retrieval"). Piano players activated motor areas and the mirror neuron system more strongly than musically naïve participants during encoding. When retrieving the sequence, musically naïve participants showed higher activation in similar brain areas. Thus, retrieval activations of naïve participants were comparable to encoding activations of piano players, who during retrieval performed the sequences more accurately despite lower motor activations. Interestingly, both groups showed primary auditory activation even during sequence retrieval without auditory feedback, supporting previous reports about coactivation of the auditory cortex after learned association with motor performance. When playing with auditory feedback, only pianists lateralized to the left auditory cortex. During encoding activation in left primary somatosensory cortex in the height of the finger representations had a predictive value for increased motor performance later on (error rates). Contrarily, decreased performance was associated with increased visual cortex activation during encoding. Our study extends previous reports about training transfer of motor knowledge resulting in superior training effects in musicians. Performance increase went along with activity in motor areas and the mirror neuron network during pattern encoding.

fMRI-activation during drawing a naturalistic or sketchy portrait.

Neural processes for naturalistic drawing might be discerned into object recognition and analysis, attention processes guiding eye hand interaction, encoding of visual features in an allocentric reference frame, a transfer into the motor command and precise motor guidance with tight sensorimotor feedback. Cerebral representations in a real life paradigm during naturalistic drawing have sparsely been investigated. Using a functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging (fMRI) paradigm we measured 20 naive subjects during drawing a portrait from a frontal face presented as a photograph. Participants were asked to draw the portrait in either a naturalistic or a sketchy characteristic way. Tracing the contours of the face with a pencil or passive viewing of the face served as control conditions. Compared to passive viewing, naturalistic and sketchy drawing recruited predominantly the dorsal visual pathway, somatosensory and motor areas and bilateral BA 44. The right occipital lobe, middle temporal (MT) and the fusiform face area were increasingly active during drawing compared to passive viewing as well. Compared to tracing with a pencil, both drawing tasks increasingly involved the bilateral precuneus together with the cuneus and right inferior temporal lobe. Overall, our study identified cerebral areas characteristic for previously proposed aspects of drawing: face perception and analysis (fusiform gyrus and higher visual areas), encoding and retrieval of locations in an allocentric reference frame (precuneus), and continuous feedback processes during motor output (parietal sulcus, cerebellar hemisphere).

[Allogeneic stem cell transplantation for acute myeloid leukemia and HIV infection--case 3/2012]. / Allogene Stammzelltransplantation bei Akuter Myeloischer Leukämie und HIV-Infektion--Fall 3/2012.

HISTORY AND ADMISSION FINDINGS: A 27-year-old male patient with a past medical history of HIV presented with acute myeloid leukemia for allogeneic hematopoietic stem cell transplantation (HSCT). Highly active anti-retroviral therapy suppressed the viral load below detection threshold. INVESTIGATIONS: There were no contraindications for allogeneic HSCT. TREATMENT AND COURSE: Myeloablative conditioning consisted of total body irradiation and cyclophosphamide. Anti-thymocyte globulin, tacrolimus and mycophenolate mofetil were used for immunosuppression. Combined anti-retroviral therapy (nucleoside and nucleotide analog reverse-transcriptase inhibitor, boostered protease inhibitor, maraviroc and raltegravir) was maintained for allogeneic HSCT and viral load remained below detection threshold. No graft-versus-host disease or serious infectious complications occurred. The patient showed good graft function with stable hematopoiesis. Localized Kaposi's sarcoma was diagnosed six months after allogeneic HSCT and treated successfully with surgical excision and reduction of immunosuppression. Almost one year after allogeneic HSCT, the CD4+ cell count is rising and viral load remains below detection threshold with combined anti-retroviral therapy. CONCLUSION: Allogeneic HSCT can be safely performed in HIV positive patients. Kaposi's sarcoma is a rare event after allogeneic HSCT and linked to strong immunosuppression.

Early-life environment influencing susceptibility to cytomegalovirus infection: evidence from the Leiden Longevity Study and the Longitudinal Study of Aging Danish Twins.

Human cytomegalovirus (CMV) is a common herpesvirus establishing lifelong persisting infection, which has been implicated in immunosenescence and mortality in the elderly. Little is known about how and when susceptibility to CMV infection is determined. We measured CMV seroprevalence in two genetically informative cohorts. From the Leiden Longevity Study (LLS) we selected long-lived sib-pairs (n=844) and their middle-aged offspring and the offspring's partners (n=1452). From the Longitudinal Study of Aging Danish Twins (LSADT) 604 (302 pairs) same-sex monozygotic (MZ) and dizygotic (DZ) twins aged 73-94 years were included (n=302 pairs). Offspring of the long-lived LLS participants had significantly lower seroprevalence of CMV compared to their partners (offspring: 42% vs. partners: 51%, P=0·003). Of 372 offspring living with a CMV-positive partner, only 58% were infected. The corresponding number for partners was 71% (P<0·001). In the LSADT, MZ and DZ twins had high and similar CMV-positive concordance rates (MZ: 90% vs. DZ: 88%, P=0·51) suggesting that shared family environment accounts for the similarity within twin pairs. Our findings suggest that susceptibility to CMV infection--even under continuous within-partnership exposure--appears to be more strongly influenced by early-life environment than by genetic factors and adult environment.

Prospective comparison of PCR-based vs late mRNA-based preemptive antiviral therapy for HCMV infection in patients after allo-SCT.

Human CMV (HCMV)-directed preemptive therapy has helped to improve the outcome following allo-SCT. In this study, we evaluated the safety and efficacy of a late mRNA-based (NucliSens CMV pp67) anti-HCMV treatment strategy. A prospective randomized multicenter pilot trial was performed comparing PCR-based, with late mRNA-based preemptive HCMV-directed antiviral therapy in patients after allo-SCT. In all, 133 patients were randomized in three different centers at the time of transplant, 130 of whom are evaluable. Viral screening was performed weekly. Antiviral therapy was initiated at the second consecutive positive PCR result, or at the first detection of late mRNA. The therapy was stopped if clearance of HCMV DNA or late mRNA was demonstrated after 14 days of antiviral therapy. If HCMV infection persisted, antiviral therapy was continued in a reduced dose. The median duration of antiviral therapy during the first treatment episode was 28 days for PCR-, and 19 days for mRNA-screened patients (P<0.02). However, the overall duration of antiviral therapy, as well as the incidence of HCMV disease and the OS at day 100 after transplantation was comparable between the two study groups. We conclude that late mRNA-based anti-HCMV therapy may show comparable safety and efficacy with PCR-based therapy in patients after allo-SCT.

Life-threatening pneumonia caused by human cytomegalovirus and Mycoplasma pneumoniae coinfection in a young, immunocompetent patient.

A young, previously healthy and immunocompetent patient was transferred to our hospital to recover a suspected Ascaris worm from his gall bladder. Although the diagnosis of Ascaris infection could not be confirmed, the patient suffered from cholecystitis. To our surprise, the respiratory situation of the patient deteriorated within 24 h under antibiotic therapy and he had to be transferred to the intensive care unit for mechanical respiration. Human cytomegalovirus (HCMV) was isolated directly from a bronchoalveolar lavage (BAL) sample, and Mycoplasma pneumoniae DNA was detected by PCR in an enrichment culture of the same BAL sample. Serology for HCMV and M. pneumoniae clearly supported a primary/post-primary infection for both agents (IgM detection, increase of IgG titres and, in the case of HCMV, a low avidity index of only 22 %). Therefore, we assumed that a rare HCMV and M. pneumoniae coinfection was the aetiology of the fulminant pneumonia. Under broad antibiotic and antiviral treatment, the situation of the patient improved only very slowly.

Asynchronic steroid activity of Leydig and Sertoli cells related to spermatogenic and testosterone cycle in Phymaturus antofagastensis.

The severe environments where Phymaturus lizards inhabit in the Andes highlands and in Patagonia, Argentina, impose restrictions on their reproduction, offering a framework for the development of life history strategies to overcome hard weather conditions. Among them, prolonged female cycles, asynchrony between sexes in receptivity, and sperm storage in males, were described. Asynchrony in the reproductive timing between males and females is a consequence of different energy requirements for gametogenesis, and often imply the existence of cellular mechanisms to enhance fertilization, such as the asynchronic steroid synthesis between testicular compartments, allowing gametogenesis independently of mating. In the present study ultrastructural and hormone assays were combined for the first time in liolaemids. Specifically, morphological features of steroid activity in Leydig and Sertoli cells, and serum testosterone concentrations have been studied in the lizard Phymaturus antofagastensis. Leydig and Sertoli cells presented morphological features characteristic of steroid synthesis during the spermatogenesis, and evident asynchronic steroid production between testicular compartments. Active Sertoli cells and inactive Leydig cells were observed in spring and autumn, while in mid-summer their steroid activity was synchronic in coincidence with maximal abundance of spermatozoa in epididymis. Serum testosterone concentration was at its maximum in mid-summer (126-230 ng ml(-1)), and minimum in late spring (4-24 ng ml(-1)) and early autumn (2-17 ng ml(-1)). In view of these results, P. antofagastensis males show an original approach to adjust their reproductive activity to physiological and environmental constraints at high latitudes and altitudes in the Andean highlands of Argentina.

Inhibition of goiter growth and of cyclic AMP formation in rat thyroid by 2-iodohexadecanal.

INTRODUCTION: Thyroid autoregulation has been related to intraglandular content of an unknown putative iodocompound. The thyroid is capable of producing different iodolipids such as 6-iodo-deltalactone (ILdelta) and 2-iodohexadecanal (2-IHDA). Data from different laboratories have shown that these iodolipids inhibit several thyroid parameters. ILdelta has an antigoitrogenic action but no data about the action of 2-IHDA on this parameter has been published. OBJECTIVES: to study the action of 2-IHDA on methimazole (MMI)-induced goiter and analyze if this compound can cause the involution of preformed goiter. RESULTS: Administration of MMI to rats during 10 days increased thyroid weight by 112%. This effect was significantly inhibited by the simultaneous injection of 20mug/day of 2-IHDA (51% vs. MMI) while iodine or non iodinated hexadecanal were without action. Thyroidal proliferating cell nuclear antigen (PCNA) content was increased by MMI while 2-IHDA decreased this value (control: 100%; MMI: 190+/-11; MMI+2-IHDA: 134+/-10). Serum TSH was increased after MMI administration and 2-IHDA did not modify this parameter (control: 1.89+/-0.10; MMI: 8.19+/-0.93ng/ml; MMI+2-IHDA: 7.38+/-0.72). Treatment with MMI increased thyroidal cAMP content (control: 16.1+/-0.82, MMI: 42.4+/-4.6 fmol/mg protein) while injection of 2-IHDA significantly decreased this value (22.3+/-2.0). Goiter prevention by 2-IHDA was also observed at 30 days of treatment reducing total number of cells (51% inhibition) and epithelial height (81% inhibition). Goiter involution was induced after withdrawal of MMI and injection with 2-IHDA, KI or saline. 2-IHDA led to a reduction of 74.5% in thyroid weight after 3 days while spontaneous involution (saline) was only of 32%. KI failed to alter this value. This significant involution was accompanied by a reduction in the number of cells (66%). Administration of the iodolipids did not produce significant changes in several serum parameters such as total T(3) and T(4), cholesterol, transaminases, urea and creatinine. CONCLUSION: 2-Iodohexadecanal, as 6-iodo-deltalactone, prevents goiter growth in rats and opens a potential therapeutic application of iodolipids.

Cytomegalovirus cell tropism.

The human cytomegalovirus (HCMV) can infect a remarkably broad cell range within its host, including parenchymal cells and connective tissue cells of virtually any organ and various hematopoietic cell types. Epithelial cells, endothelial cells, fibroblasts and smooth muscle cells are the predominant targets for virus replication. The pathogenesis of acute HCMV infections is greatly influenced by this broad target cell range. Infection of epithelial cells presumably contributes to inter-host transmission. Infection of endothelial cells and hematopoietic cells facilitates systemic spread within the host. Infection of ubiquitous cell types such as fibroblasts and smooth muscle cells provides the platform for efficient proliferation of the virus. The tropism for endothelial cells, macrophages and dendritic cells varies greatly among different HCMV strains, mostly dependent on alterations within the UL128-131 gene locus. In line with the classification of the respective proteins as structural components of the viral envelope, interstrain differences concerning the infectivity in endothelial cells and macrophages are regulated on the level of viral entry.

Apparently non-specific results found using a norovirus antigen immunoassay for fecal specimens from neonates.

Norovirus is increasingly recognized as a frequent cause of non-bacterial gastroenteritis. Despite a 10-fold increase in the number of cases reported following the availability of enzyme immunoassays, there are no reports yet from preterm neonates. We report on a sudden clustering of antigen-positive enzyme immuno assays results in a level III neonatal intensive care unit, involving 22 of 43 infants screened. Although antigen-positive samples were significantly associated with bloody stools (P<0.001) and gastric residues (P<0.02), norovirus infection could not be confirmed by reverse-transcriptase polymerase chain reaction or electron microscopy. We question the validity of the so called norovirus-specific antigen assays and warn against overreacting to positive enzyme immunoassays results without reverse-transcriptase polymerase chain reaction confirmation especially in the neonatal setting.

[Human cytomegalovirus and congenital virus infection]. / Humanes Cytomegalovirus und kongenitale Infektion.

Human cytomegalovirus (HCMV) is the most common congenital virus infection. Nearly 85 years after Goodpasture defined the histopathological correlate of this virus infection as "cytomegal", many questions still await answers. Important progress in prenatal and postnatal diagnostics have contributed to a better understanding of the role of congenital HCMV infection as an important public health issue. It is possible today to distinguish maternal primary infection from reactivation. Using dried blood spots on Guthrie cards, prenatally acquired HCMV infection can be differentiated from postnatally via breast milk acquired HCMV infection of the neonate. In addition, long-term storage of Guthrie cards opens the door for retrospective epidemiological research on congenital HCMV infection. However, each new individual case of fetal damage by this virus dramatically reveals the limited efficacy of postnatal antiviral treatment efforts. A recent therapy option for the pregnant woman with HCMV primary infection using hyperimmunoglobulin opens new horizons. Until the availability of a vaccine, gynecologists, pediatricians and company medical personnel should inform seronegative pregnant women on routes of virus transmission and simple hygiene procedures to prevent congenital HCMV infection.

Freeze-thawing of breast milk does not prevent cytomegalovirus transmission to a preterm infant.

Freezing human milk is recommended to inactivate cytomegalovirus (CMV). A case of a preterm infant exclusively receiving frozen breast milk from his CMV seropositive mother showed that storage of breast milk for two months at -20 degrees C did not prevent symptomatic postnatal CMV infection.

Adenoviral infections after transplantation of positive selected stem cells from haploidentical donors in children: an update.

UNLABELLED: We present updated results of stem cell transplantation with highly purified stem cells from haploidentical parental donors and infection with human adenovirus (HAdV) post stem cell transplantation (SCT). Survival post SCT is primarily determined by relapse, infections and far less by GvHD or other transplant related mortality. During the immune reconstitution the host is at significant risk for severe viral infections. HAdV infection is especially in children an important complication post SCT, with significant morbidity and mortality despite new antiviral treatment strategies. Although control of infection seems to require T-cells, the characterization of HAdV-specific T-cells post SCT has not been introduced in surveillance and treatment decisions. METHODS: Therefore we evaluated the impact of HAdV-infections on the survival between 1995 and 2004 (n = 63) and studied the occurrence of adenovirus-specific T-cells in children with (n = 9) and without (n = 9) HAdV-infection post allogeneic SCT and in healthy donors (n = 53). After stimulation ex-vivo with HAdV-antigen IFN-gamma secreting T-cells were analyzed by flowcytometry and defined as HAdV-specific T-cells. RESULTS: Until day 180 post SCT the cumulative incidence of all lethal viral infections (HAdV n = 5, cytomegalovirus n = 3, herpes simplex virus n = 1) was 16 % for the whole cohort of patients. Cumulative incidence of HAdV-associated mortality was 8.5 %. Cumulative incidence of all lethal viral infections could be now reduced from 16 % to 8 % in conjunction with new surveillance- and therapeutic-strategies. Children with HAdV-associated mortality all had no specific T-cells, although reconstitution of absolute lymphocyte counts exceeded 300/microl within 30 days post transplant. Patients who cleared HAdV infection had normal frequencies of HAdV-specific T-cells until day 200 post SCT. CONCLUSION: In summary adenovirus specific T-cell reconstitution should be monitored in patients after SCT to limit the use of anti viral chemotherapy and help to identify those patients that would benefit from new therapeutic strategies like adoptive transfer of virus specific T-cells.

Visualization and microscopic quantification of HCMV-peptide-specific cytotoxic T lymphocytes using tetramer binding.

To monitor the frequencies of virus-specific cytotoxic T lymphocytes (CTLs), FACS analyses were performed detecting lymphocyte-specific surface molecules and tetramer binding, as marker for peptide-specificity. Aim of this investigation was to establish an alternative protocol for the quantification of virus-specific CTLs using tetramer binding and microscopic analyzing. The frequencies of HCMV-pp65-peptide-specific CTLs in the blood of eight different HLA-A*0201-positive, HCMV-IgG antibody-positive donors were analyzed with both methods. Using FACS analyses, a median of 0.8% and, using the microscopic analyses, a median of 3.0% was detected in the CD3+CD8+ cells. After enrichment of HCMV-pp65-peptide-specific CTLs using the interferon-gamma secretion assay followed by expansion in cell culture, a median of 90.6% using FACS analyses and a median of 87.1% using the microscopic analyses was detected. Thus, the staining protocol presented in this investigation is an alternative approach to detect and to quantify virus-specific CTLs in low as well as in high frequencies.

[Breast feeding of very preterm infants of HCMV-seropositive mothers]. / Muttermilchernährung der sehr unreifen Frühgeborenen von HCMV-seropositiven Müttern -- Stellungnahme.

Preterm infants can be infected with human cytomegalovirus (HCMV) transmitted via breast milk of their HCMV-seropositive mothers, 96 % of whom reactivate the virus during lactation. 38 % of exposed VLBW infants become infected, with 48 % of these developing at least one symptom. Whether priority should be given to the multiple advantages of breast milk feeding or to the avoidance of a possible HCMV infection by exclusive formula feeding still cannot be decided due to insufficient data on the long-term outcome of infected infants. Inactivation of HCMV in breast milk can be achieved safely only via heat treatment, but the clinical consequences resulting from the use of pasteurized breast milk are unknown. Given the above situation, the authors decided to continue breast-feeding of VLBW and ELBW infants in their units after obtaining informed parenteral consent, until data for an evidence-based decision become available.