Population genetics analysis of Phlebotomus papatasi sand flies from Egypt and Jordan based on mitochondrial cytochrome b haplotypes.

BACKGROUND: Phlebotomus papatasi sand flies are major vectors of Leishmania major and phlebovirus infection in North Africa and across the Middle East to the Indian subcontinent. Population genetics is a valuable tool in understanding the level of genetic variability present in vector populations, vector competence, and the development of novel control strategies. This study investigated the genetic differentiation between P. papatasi populations in Egypt and Jordan that inhabit distinct ecotopes and compared this structure to P. papatasi populations from a broader geographical range. METHODS: A 461 base pair (bp) fragment from the mtDNA cytochrome b (cyt b) gene was PCR amplified and sequenced from 116 individual female sand flies from Aswan and North Sinai, Egypt, as well as Swaimeh and Malka, Jordan. Haplotypes were identified and used to generate a median-joining network, F ST values and isolation-by-distance were also evaluated. Additional sand fly individuals from Afghanistan, Iran, Israel, Jordan, Libya, Tunisia and Turkey were included as well as previously published haplotypes to provide a geographically broad genetic variation analysis. RESULTS: Thirteen haplotypes displaying nine variant sites were identified from P. papatasi collected in Egypt and Jordan. No private haplotypes were identified from samples in North Sinai, Egypt, two were observed in Aswan, Egypt, four from Swaimeh, Jordan and two in Malka, Jordan. The Jordan populations clustered separately from the Egypt populations and produced more private haplotypes than those from Egypt. Pairwise F ST values fall in the range 0.024-0.648. CONCLUSION: The clustering patterns and pairwise F ST values indicate a strong differentiation between Egyptian and Jordanian populations, although this population structure is not due to isolation-by-distance. Other factors, such as environmental influences and the genetic variability in the circulating Le. major parasites, could possibly contribute to this heterogeneity. The present study aligns with previous reports in that pockets of genetic differentiation exists between populations of this widely dispersed species but, overall, the species remains relatively homogeneous.

Natural Infection of Phlebotomus sergenti by Leishmania tropica in Libya.

Cutaneous Leishmaniasis (CL) is a public health concern caused by Leishmania (L.) major and L.tropica in Libya. Information on sandfly vectors, as well as their associated Leishmania species, is of paramount importance because vector dispersion is one of the major factors responsible for pathogen dissemination. A number of 515 sandflies (275 males and 240 females) were collected during June-November 2012 using the Centers for Disease Control miniature light traps from Al Rabta, northwest of Libya. Two hundred and forty unfed females were identified; Phlebotomus (Ph.) papatasi (N = 97), Ph. sergenti (N = 27), Ph. longicuspis (N = 32), Sergentomyia (Se.) minuta (N = 38), and Se. fallax (N = 46). These flies were screened for Leishmania DNA using the polymerase chain reaction-restriction fragment length polymorphism analysis of the internal transcribed spacer 1 and sequencing. Two Ph. sergenti were found positive to L. tropica DNA. This finding should be considered for any further vector surveillance and epidemiological studies of CL in endemic areas across Libya.

Development of polymorphic EST microsatellite markers for the sand fly, Phlebotomus papatasi (Diptera: Psychodidae).

BACKGROUND: Phlebotomus papatasi is a widely distributed sand fly species in different tropical and sub-tropical regions including the Middle East and North Africa. It is considered an important vector that transmits Leishmania major parasites, the causative agents of cutaneous leishmaniasis. The development of microsatellite markers for this sand fly vector is of high interest to understand its population structure and to monitor its geographic dispersal. RESULTS: Fourteen polymorphic microsatellite markers were developed with simple di-, tri- and tetra-nucleotide repeats. The F statistics calculated for the 14 markers revealed high genetic diversity; expected heterozygosity (He) ranged from 0.407 to 0.767, while observed heterozygosity (Ho) was lower and ranged from 0.083 to 0.514. The number of alleles sampled fall in the range of 9-29. Three out of 14 markers deviated from Hardy-Weinberg expectations, no significant linkage disequilibrium was detected and high values for inbreeding coefficient (FIS) were likely due to inbreeding. CONCLUSIONS: The development of these functional microsatellites enable a high resolution of P. papatasi populations. It opens a path for researchers to perform multi locus-based population genetic structure analyses, and comparative mapping, a part of the efforts to uncover the population dynamics of this vector, which is an important global strategy for understanding the epidemiology and control of leishmaniasis.

Natural infection of Ctenodactylus gundi by Leishmania major in Tunisia.

Incriminating new rodent species, as reservoir hosts of Leishmania parasites is crucial for understanding the transmission cycle of cutaneous leishmaniasis in Tunisia. Ctenodactylus (C.) gundi was previously described as extremely abundant in all Tunisian Leishmania (L.) tropica foci in south Tunisia besides its presence in L. major endemic area. The aim of this study was to detect Leishmania species parasites among C. gundi in two endemic regions in Tunisia: Sidi Bouzid and Tataouine. Total DNA was isolated from the spleens and the livers of 92C. gundi. Leishmaniasis clinical manifestations were detected among 11 rodents (12%). Leishmania parasites were detected in 30 (32.6%) rodents using direct exam method. Leishmania DNA was detected in 40 (43.5%) C. gundi by combining results among spleens and livers using ITS1-PCR. Positive samples were confirmed to be L. major except for only one specimen which was L. tropica. These results demonstrated, for the first time, the high natural infection rate of C. gundi with L. major parasites in Tunisia. Hence, C. gundi should be considered as potential reservoir host of Leishmania parasites causing cutaneous leishmaniasis in Tunisia.

Blood Meal Analysis of Phlebotomine Sandflies (Diptera: Psychodidae: Phlebotominae) for Leishmania spp. Identification and Vertebrate Blood Origin, Central Tunisia, 2015-2016.

During the time periods of June 2015 and from July to August 2016, sandflies were collected among seven collection sites of the three leishmaniasis endemic villages of Sidi Bouzid, Tunisia. A total of 690 sandflies were captured and identified (380 males and 310 females). Four species belonging to genus Phlebotomus (Ph.) and two species belonging to genus Sergentomyia were identified. Leishmania DNA was detected in four out of 310 females (one Ph. sergenti and three Ph. papatasi). The overall sensitivity of the Prepronociceptin gene detection reached 76%. The concurrent presence of Ph. papatasi and Ph. sergenti vectors, the analysis of blood-meals, together with the detection of L. major in Ph. papatasi, confirms the ultimate conditions for the transmission of the disease in center Tunisia. These results expand the known epidemiological area of distrubtion of leishmaniasis and its vectors in this part of Tunisia, highlighting the need for ongoing entomological and parasitological surveillance.

First Report on Natural Infection of Phlebotomus sergenti with Leishmania tropica in a Classical Focus of Leishmania major in Tunisia.

In Tunisia, chronic cutaneous leishmaniasis due to Leishmania tropica is an important health problem. Its spreading has not been fully elucidated. Information on sandfly vectors, as well as their associated Leishmania species, is of paramount importance since vector dispersion is one of the major factors responsible for pathogen dissemination. Ninety-seven unfed females belonging to the genera Sergentomyia and Phlebotomus were collected between June and August 2015 using sticky paper traps. Polymerase chain reaction-restriction fragment length polymorphism analysis of the internal transcribed spacer 1and sequencing were used for Leishmania detection and identification. In total, 650 sandflies were captured and identified (380 males and 270 females). Ninety-seven unfed females were tested for the presence of Leishmania parasite DNA. Six Phlebotomus sergenti were found positive for L. tropica. This novel finding enhances the understanding of the cycle extension of L. tropica outside its original focus of Tataouine.

First report of naturally infected Sergentomyia minuta with Leishmania major in Tunisia.

BACKGROUND: Many sand fly species are implicated in the transmission cycle of Leishmania parasites around the world. Incriminating new sand flies species, as vectors of Leishmania is crucial to understanding the parasite-vector transmission cycle in different areas in Tunisia and surrounding countries. FINDINGS: Seventy-four unfed females belonging to the genera Sergentomyia and Phlebotomus were collected in South Tunisia between June and November 2014, using sticky papers. PCR-RFLP (Restriction Fragment Length Polymorphism) analysis of the internal transcribed spacer 1 (ITS1) was used for Leishmania parasites detection and identification. Leishmania (L.) major (Yakimoff & Shokkor, 1914) was identified within two Sergentomyia (S.) minuta (Rondani, 1843) and one Phlebotomus papatasi (Scopoli, 1786). CONCLUSION: This is the first report of L. major identified from S. minuta in Tunisia. This novel finding enhances the understanding of the transmission cycle of L. major parasites of cutaneous leishmaniasis in an endemic area in South Tunisia.

RAPD-PCR reveals genetic polymorphism among Leishmania major strains from Tunisian patients.

BACKGROUND: Zoonotic cutaneous leishmaniasis caused by Leishmania (L.) major is endemoepidemic in the Center and South of Tunisia. The clinical course of the disease varies widely among different patients and geographic regions. Although genetic diversity in L. major parasites has been suggested as a potential factor influencing their pathogenic variability, little information on genetic polymorphism among L. major strains is available in the literature. This work aimed to estimate the genetic variability within different isolates of L. major. METHODS: Our sample comprised 39 isolates (confirmed as L. major by restriction fragment length polymorphism typing) from patients experiencing the same clinical manifestations but living in different regions of Tunisia where L. major is endemic. Random amplified polymorphic DNA (RAPD) PCR marker polymorphism was estimated by calculating Nei and Li's genetic distances and by an analysis of molecular variance (AMOVA). RESULTS: Analysis of the genetic diversity among the isolates revealed a high level of polymorphism (43 %) among them. AMOVA indicated that the highest variability (99 %) existed within the study regions. CONCLUSIONS: Our results revealed a heterogeneous genetic profile for L. major with similar clinical manifestations occurring within the different geographical regions. Additional L. major isolates from patients, insect vectors, and reservoir hosts from different endemic foci should be collected for further analysis.

Evolutionary history of Leishmania killicki (synonymous Leishmania tropica) and taxonomic implications.

BACKGROUND: The taxonomic status of Leishmania (L.) killicki, a parasite that causes chronic cutaneous leishmaniasis, is not well defined yet. Indeed, some researchers suggested that this taxon could be included in the L. tropica complex, whereas others considered it as a distinct phylogenetic complex. To try to solve this taxonomic issue we carried out a detailed study on the evolutionary history of L. killicki relative to L. tropica. METHODS: Thirty-five L. killicki and 25 L. tropica strains isolated from humans and originating from several countries were characterized using the MultiLocus Enzyme Electrophoresis (MLEE) and the MultiLocus Sequence Typing (MLST) approaches. RESULTS: The results of the genetic and phylogenetic analyses strongly support the hypothesis that L. killicki belongs to the L. tropica complex. Our data suggest that L. killicki emerged from a single founder event and that it evolved independently from L. tropica. However, they do not validate the hypothesis that L. killicki is a distinct complex. Therefore, we suggest naming this taxon L. killicki (synonymous L. tropica) until further epidemiological and phylogenetic studies justify the L. killicki denomination. CONCLUSIONS: This study provides taxonomic and phylogenetic information on L. killicki and improves our knowledge on the evolutionary history of this taxon.

Transmission of visceral leishmaniasis in a previously non-endemic region of Tunisia: detection of Leishmania DNA in Phlebotomus perniciosus.

Visceral leishmaniasis (VL) has been endemic in northern Tunisia and has occurred sporadically in the center of Tunisia. Recently, there have been several cases from areas known to be free of VL. We report in this work all human and canine cases of VL recorded between 2003 and 2011 and an entomological study of phlebotomine fauna in a previously non-endemic region. Sixty-three cases of VL were diagnosed and identified as L. infantum using several different methods. Eight species of 179 sand flies were caught and identified by both morphological and molecular methods. Two genera were present, Phlebotomus and Sergentomya, with an abundance of the subgenus Phlebotomus (Larrousius) spp., a classic vector of VL in Tunisia. Moreover, Leishmania DNA was detected in seven unfed Phlebotomus pernicousus and L. infantum was identified in three of them. This result confirms the establishment of a transmission cycle of VL in the studied region by the coexistence of infected vectors with infected hosts.

Morphological and molecular investigations of population structure of Phlebotomus perniciosus and Phlebotomus longicuspis (Diptera: Psychodidae) in Tunisia.

Morphological and molecular characterization of Phlebotomus (Larroussius) perniciosus Newstead and Phlebotomus (L.) longicuspis Nitzulescu in Tunisia is reported. Different localities in central and southern Tunisia were sampled. Sand flies were collected by sticky-paper traps and Center for Disease Control traps. For morphological study of males, the copulatory valves (aedeagi) were examined and the number of coxite hairs was recorded. For molecular analysis, the mitochondrial cytochrome b gene and the cytochrome c oxidase I gene were sequenced to investigate the population structure of P. perniciosus and P. longicuspis. The majority of P. perniciosus samples from southern and some specimens from central Tunisia showed single-pointed aedeagi curved at their apicies that were indistinguishable from the P. longicuspis aedeagi and appeared similar to the atypical morph of P. perniciosus, previously described in northern Morocco. The current study gives evidence of a wide distribution of atypical morphs of P. perniciosus in southern and central Tunisia.

Twenty-four new human cases of cutaneous leishmaniasis due to Leishmania killicki in Metlaoui, southwestern Tunisia: probable role of Phlebotomus sergenti in the transmission.

Metlaoui district in the South-west of Tunisia is a classical focus of cutaneous leishmaniasis (CL) due to Leishmania major. Since 2005, a single case of CL due to L. killicki has been reported. We report twenty four human cases due to this parasite, affecting men and women from 2 to 70 years old. Leishmania killicki have been typed using molecular techniques: polymerase chain reaction (PCR) followed by restriction fragment length polymorphism (RFLP) and gene sequencing. Four strains from patients have been successfully cultured on NNN medium and isoenzymatically typed as L. killicki MON-8. Our results strongly suggests that Metlaoui is a new L. killicki focus with a stable transmission cycle. Sand flies fauna in the same focus was also studied. 1400 Phlebotomine sand flies (785 males/615 females) have been caught during an entomological survey. Leishmania major DNA has been found in one P. papatasi female, the most abundant species, whereas L. killicki DNA has been found in one Phlebotomus sergenti female emphasizing the probable role of this species as vector of this zoonotic parasite.

First detection of Leishmania killicki (Kinetoplastida, Trypanosomatidae) in Ctenodactylus gundi (Rodentia, Ctenodactylidae), a possible reservoir of human cutaneous leishmaniasis in Tunisia.

BACKGROUND: Leishmania killicki was originally described in 1980 in southeast Tunisia. It was also recently reported in Lybia and Algeria. Nevertheless, neither vector nor reservoirs of this parasite are known. The identification of the vector and the animal reservoir host of L. killicki is critical for the establishment of an efficient control strategy. FINDINGS: blood, popliteal lymph node, spleen, bone marrow, liver and skin were collected from 50 rodents in 2009 in south western Tunisia. Samples were smeared onto glass slides, cultured on NNN medium and tested by polymerase chain reaction for Leishmania detection. Parasites were detected by PCR from 10 Psammomys obesus and from two Ctenodactylus gundi. Parasite identification was performed simultaneously by internal transcribed spacer 1 PCR-RFLP and by PCR sequencing. Both Leishmania major and Leishmania killicki were identified from infected Psammomys and Ctenodactylus gundi respectively. CONCLUSION: This is the first report of Leishmania killicki identified from Ctenodactylus gundi in Tunisia. This result supports the assumption that C. gundi is a potential reservoir for Leishmania killicki.