Lipidation Engineering in Daptomycin Biosynthesis.

Lipopeptides are an important family of natural products, some of which are clinically used as antibiotics to treat multidrug-resistant pathogens. Although the lipid moieties play a crucial role in balancing antibacterial activity and hemolytic toxicity, modifying the lipid moieties has been challenging due to the complexity of the lipidation process in lipopeptide biosynthesis. Here, we show that the lipid profile can be altered by engineering both secondary and primary metabolisms, using daptomycin as an example. First, swapping the fatty acyl AMP ligase (FAAL) gene dptF with foreign FAAL homologs improved the fatty acyl specificity of the lipidation process for decanoic acid. Then, the introduction of Mycobacterium type I fatty acid synthase operon (MvFAS-Ib/MvAcpS) and Cryptosporidium thioesterase (CpTEII) enriched the fatty acid pool with decanoic acid in Streptomyces roseosporus. The engineered fatty acid metabolism eliminates the need for external decanoic acid supplementation by enabling S. roseosporus to biosynthesize decanoic acid. By complete engineering of the lipidation process, we achieved, for the first time, high-purity, natural production of daptomycin. The lipidation engineering approach we demonstrate here lays the foundation for the lipidation control in lipopeptide biosynthesis.

Promoter engineering of natural product biosynthetic gene clusters in actinomycetes: concepts and applications.

Covering 2011 to 2022Low titers of natural products in laboratory culture or fermentation conditions have been one of the challenging issues in natural products research. Many natural product biosynthetic gene clusters (BGCs) are also transcriptionally silent in laboratory culture conditions, making it challenging to characterize the structures and activities of their metabolites. Promoter engineering offers a potential solution to this problem by providing tools for transcriptional activation or optimization of biosynthetic genes. In this review, we summarize the 10 years of progress in promoter engineering approaches in natural products research focusing on the most metabolically talented group of bacteria actinomycetes.

Acidonemycins A-C, Glycosylated Angucyclines with Antivirulence Activity Produced by the Acidic Culture of Streptomyces indonesiensis.

The genome of Streptomyces indonesiensis is highly enriched with cryptic biosynthetic gene clusters (BGCs). The majority of these cryptic BGCs are transcriptionally silent in normal laboratory culture conditions as determined by transcriptome analysis. When cultured in acidic pH (pH 5.4), this strain has been shown to produce a set of new metabolites that were not observed in cultures of neutral pH (pH 7.4). The organic extract of the acidic culture displayed an antivirulence activity against methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA). Here, we report the structures of new glycosylated aromatic polyketides, named acidonemycins A-C (1-3), belonging to the family of angucyclines. Type II polyketide synthase BGC responsible for the production of 1-3 was identified by a transcriptome comparison between acidic (pH 5.4) and neutral (pH 7.4) cultures and further confirmed by heterologous expression in Streptomyces albus J1074. Of the three new compounds, acidonemycins A and B (1 and 2) displayed antivirulence activity against MRSA. The simultaneous identification of both antivirulent compounds and their BGC provides a starting point for the future effort of combinatorial biosynthesis.

CaExTun: Mitigating Cas9-Related Toxicity in Streptomyces through Species-Specific Expression Tuning with Randomized Constitutive Promoters.

The CRISPR/Cas9 system provides an efficient tool for engineering genomes. However, its application to Streptomyces genome engineering has been hampered by excessive toxicity associated with overexpression of Cas9 protein. As the level of Cas9 toxicity varies significantly between Streptomyces species, species-specific optimization of Cas9 expression is a strategy to mitigate its toxicity while maintaining sufficient double-strand break (DSB) activity for genome engineering. Using a pool of randomized constitutive promoters and a blue pigment indigoidine biosynthetic gene (IndC) as a reporter, we developed the CaExTun (Cas9 Expression Tuning) platform, which enables rapid screening of a large pool of promoter-Cas9 constructs to quickly recover the one with high DSB activity and no apparent toxicity. We demonstrate the utility of CaExTun using four model Streptomyces species. We also show that CaExTun can be applied to the CRISPRi system by allowing the construction of a library of promoter-dCas9 constructs that confer a wide range of gene repression levels. As demonstrated here, CaExTun is a versatile tool for the rapid optimization of the CRISPR/Cas9 system in a species-specific manner and thus will facilitate CRISPR/Cas9-based genome engineering efforts in Streptomyces.

Top-down synthetic biology approach for titer improvement of clinically important antibiotic daptomycin in Streptomyces roseosporus.

Secondary metabolites are produced at low titers by native producers due to tight regulations of their productions in response to environmental conditions. Synthetic biology provides a rational engineering principle for transcriptional optimization of secondary metabolite BGCs (biosynthetic gene clusters). Here, we demonstrate the use of synthetic biology principles for the development of a high-titer strain of the clinically important antibiotic daptomycin. Due to the presence of large NRPS (non-ribosomal peptide synthetase) genes with multiple direct repeats, we employed a top-down approach that allows transcriptional optimization of genes in daptomycin BGC with the minimum inputs of synthetic DNAs. The repeat-free daptomycin BGC was created through partial codon-reprogramming of a NRPS gene and cloned into a shuttle BAC vector, allowing BGC refactoring in a host with a powerful recombination system. Then, transcriptions of functionally divided operons were sequentially optimized through three rounds of DBTL (design-build-test-learn) cycles that resulted in up to ~2300% improvement in total lipopeptide titers compared to the wild-type strain. Upon decanoic acid feeding, daptomycin accounted for ∼ 40% of total lipopeptide production. To the best of our knowledge, this is the highest improvement of daptomycin titer ever achieved through genetic engineering of S. roseosporus. The top-down engineering approach we describe here could be used as a general strategy for the development of high-titer industrial strains of secondary metabolites produced by BGCs containing genes of large multi-modular NRPS and PKS enzymes.

Comparative Genomics Reveals a Remarkable Biosynthetic Potential of the Streptomyces Phylogenetic Lineage Associated with Rugose-Ornamented Spores.

The genus Streptomyces is one of the richest sources of secondary metabolite biosynthetic gene clusters (BGCs). Sequencing of a large number of genomes has provided evidence that this well-known bacterial genus still harbors a large number of cryptic BGCs, and their metabolites are yet to be discovered. When taking a gene-first approach for new natural product discovery, BGC prioritization would be the most crucial step for the discovery of novel chemotypes. We hypothesized that strains with a greater number of BGCs would also contain a greater number of silent unique BGCs due to the presence of complex regulatory systems. Based on this hypothesis, we employed a comparative genomics approach to identify a specific Streptomyces phylogenetic lineage with the highest and yet-uncharacterized biosynthetic potential. A comparison of BGC abundance and genome size across 158 phylogenetically diverse Streptomyces type strains identified that members of the phylogenetic group characterized by the formation of rugose-ornamented spores possess the greatest number of BGCs (average, 50 BGCs) and also the largest genomes (average, 11.5 Mb). The study of genetic and biosynthetic diversities using comparative genomics of 11 sequenced genomes and a genetic similarity network analysis of BGCs suggested that members of this group carry a large number of unique BGCs, the majority of which are cryptic and not associated with any known natural product. We believe that members of this Streptomyces phylogenetic group possess a remarkable biosynthetic potential and thus would be a good target for a metabolite characterization study that could lead to the discovery of novel chemotypes. IMPORTANCE It is now well recognized that members of the genus Streptomyces still harbor a large number of cryptic BGCs in their genomes, which are mostly silent under laboratory culture conditions. Activation of transcriptionally silent BGCs is technically challenging and thus forms a bottleneck when taking a gene-first approach for the discovery of new natural products. Thus, it is important to focus activation efforts on strains with BGCs that have the potential to produce novel metabolites. The clade-level analysis of biosynthetic diversity could provide insights into the relationship between phylogenetic lineage and biosynthetic diversity. By exploring BGC abundance in relation to Streptomyces phylogeny, we identified a specific monophyletic lineage associated with the highest BGC abundance. Then, using a combined analysis of comparative genomics and a genetic network, we demonstrated that members of this lineage are genetically and biosynthetically diverse, contain a large number of cryptic BGCs with novel genotypes, and thus would be a good target for metabolite characterization studies.

mpCRISTAR: Multiple Plasmid Approach for CRISPR/Cas9 and TAR-Mediated Multiplexed Refactoring of Natural Product Biosynthetic Gene Clusters.

Multiplexed refactoring provides a tool for rapid transcriptional optimization of biosynthetic gene clusters (BGCs) through simultaneous replacement of multiple native promoters with synthetic counterparts. Here, we present the mpCRISTAR, a multiple plasmid-based CRISPR/Cas9 and TAR (transformation-associated recombination), that enables a rapid and highly efficient, multiplexed refactoring of natural product BGCs in yeast. A series of CRISPR plasmids with different auxotrophic markers that could be stably maintained in yeast cells were constructed to express multiple gRNAs simultaneously. We demonstrated the multiplexing capacity of mpCRISTAR using the actinorhodin biosynthetic gene cluster as a model cluster. mpCRISTAR1, in which each CRISPR plasmid expresses one gRNA, allows for simultaneous replacement of up to four promoter sites with nearly 100% efficiency. By expressing two gRNAs from one CRISPR plasmid, termed mpCRISTAR2, we simultaneously replaced a total of six and eight promoter sites with 68% and 32% efficiency, respectively. The mpCRISTAR could be performed iteratively using two different auxotrophic markers, allowing for refactoring of any type of BGC regardless of their operon complexities. The mpCRISTAR platform we report here would become a useful tool for the discovery of new natural products from transcriptionally silent biosynthetic gene clusters present in microbial genomes.

Synthetic Inducible Regulatory Systems Optimized for the Modulation of Secondary Metabolite Production in Streptomyces.

Biosynthesis of secondary metabolites is a highly complex process that often requires tight control of their production, as overproduction of metabolites could be toxic and also may cause metabolic burden to their hosts. Tight control of metabolite production could be achieved by expressing key biosynthetic genes under control of an inducible regulatory system. In this study, we employed the modular design approach to build a high performance synthetic inducible regulatory system that displays a large dynamic range and thus is well-suited for the modulation of secondary metabolite production in Streptomyces. To this end, an inducible regulatory system was divided into three separate functional modules: (1) the induction module, (2) the target expression module, and (3) the repressor expression module. Then, these three separate modules were individually optimized in a stepwise manner and assembled to a new system. First, the cumate (CMT) induction module was chosen as the best performing induction module based on the large dynamic range and moderate inducer sensitivity. Then the CMT induction module maintained its performance when combined with diverse constitutive target expression modules, in which overall dynamic ranges varied depending on maximum promoter strengths. Lastly, the repressor expression module was optimized to achieve complete elimination of leaky expression, further increasing the dynamic range of the system. We also demonstrate that any strong constitutive regulatory system could be converted into an inducible regulatory system by simple CRISPR/Cas9-aided markerless insertion of an operator sequence whenever tight control of gene expression is required. We believe that the synthetic inducible regulatory system we report here would become a useful tool in modulating secondary metabolite production in Streptomyces.

Library of Synthetic Streptomyces Regulatory Sequences for Use in Promoter Engineering of Natural Product Biosynthetic Gene Clusters.

Promoter engineering has emerged as a powerful tool to activate transcriptionally silent natural product biosynthetic gene clusters found in bacterial genomes. Since biosynthetic gene clusters are composed of multiple operons, their promoter engineering requires the use of a set of regulatory sequences with a similar level of activities. Although several successful examples of promoter engineering have been reported, its widespread use has been limited due to the lack of a library of regulatory sequences suitable for use in promoter engineering of large, multiple operon-containing biosynthetic gene clusters. Here, we present the construction of a library of constitutively active, synthetic Streptomyces regulatory sequences. The promoter assay system has been developed using a single-module nonribosomal peptide synthetase that produces the peptide blue pigment indigoidine, allowing for the rapid screening of a large pool of regulatory sequences. The highly randomized regulatory sequences in both promoter and ribosome binding site regions were screened for their ability to produce the blue pigment, and they are classified into the strong, medium, and weak regulatory sequences based on the strength of a blue color. We demonstrated the utility of our synthetic regulatory sequences for promoter engineering of natural product biosynthetic gene clusters using the actinorhodin gene cluster as a model cluster. We believe that the set of Streptomyces regulatory sequences we report here will facilitate the discovery of new natural products from silent, cryptic biosynthetic gene clusters found in sequenced Streptomyces genomes.