Auxin acts upstream of nitric oxide to regulate cell wall xyloglucan and its aluminium-binding capacity in Arabidopsis thaliana.

MAIN CONCLUSION: Auxin acts upstream of NO through NOA and XXT5 pathways to regulate the binding capacity of the root cell wall to Al. In our previous study, we identified an unknown mechanism by which 1-naphthaleneacetic acid (NAA) decreased the fixation of aluminum (Al) in the cell wall. Here, we observed that external application of the nitric oxide (NO) donor S-nitrosoglutathion (GSNO) increased the inhibition of Al on root elongation. Further analysis indicated that GSNO could induce Al accumulation in the roots and root cell walls, which is consistent with lower xyloglucan content. In comparison to the Columbia-0 (Col-0) wild type (WT), endogenous NO-reduced mutants noa1 (NOA pathway) and nia1nia2 (NR pathway) were more resistant to Al, with lower root Al content, higher xyloglucan content, and more Al accumulation in the root cell walls. By contrast, the xxt5 mutant with reduced xyloglucan content exhibited an Al-sensitive phenotype. Interestingly, Al treatment increased the endogenous auxin and NO levels, and the auxin levels induced under Al stress further stimulated NO production. Auxin application reduced Al retention in hemicellulose and decreased the xyloglucan content, similar to the effects observed with GSNO. In yucca and aux1-7 mutants, exogenous application of NO resulted in responses similar to those of the WT, whereas exogenous auxin had little effect on the noa1 mutant under Al stress. In addition, as auxin had similar effects on the nia1nia2 mutant and the WT, exogenous auxin and NO had little effect on the xxt5 mutant under Al stress, further confirming that auxin acts upstream of NO through NOA and XXT5 pathways to regulate the binding capacity of the root cell wall to Al.

Melatonin reduces cadmium accumulation via mediating the nitric oxide accumulation and increasing the cell wall fixation capacity of cadmium in rice.

Melatonin (MT) is participated in plants' response to cadmium (Cd) tolerance, although its work model remains elusive. Here, the function of MT in adjusting Cd accumulation in rice was investigated. 'Nipponbare' (Nip) was cultured in the -Cd (1/2 Kimura B), -Cd + MT (1/2 Kimura B with 1 µM MT), +Cd (1/2 Kimura B plus 1 µM Cd) and +Cd + MT (1/2 Kimura B with 1 µM Cd and 1 µM MT) nutrient solutions for 7 d. Cd markedly induced the endogenous MT accumulation in rice roots and shoots, even within 1 h. MT applied exogenously elevated the hemicelluloses level, which in turn increased the cell wall's binding capacity to Cd. Furthermore, MT applied exogenously down-regulated the transcription level of Natural Resistance-Associated Macrophage Protein 1 (OsNRAMP1), OsNRAMP5, a major facilitator superfamily gene (OsCd1), and IRON-REGULATED TRANSPORTER 1 (OsIRT1), all of which were responsible for Cd intake, thus less Cd was entered into roots. Moreover, MT applied exogenously also up-regulated transcription level of Cadmium accumulation in Leaf 1 (OsCAL1) and Heavy Metal ATPase 3 (OsHMA3), two genes both attributed to the decreased Cd accumulation in shoots through expelling Cd out of cells and chelating Cd in the vacuoles, respectively. In addition, MT applied exogenously further aggravated the production of nitric oxide (NO) that induced by Cd, while application of a NO donor-SNP mimicked this alleviatory effect of the MT, indicating MT decreased rice Cd accumulation relied on the accumulation of NO.

Salicylic Acid Acts Upstream of Auxin and Nitric Oxide (NO) in Cell Wall Phosphorus Remobilization in Phosphorus Deficient Rice.

Salicylic acid (SA) is thought to be involved in phosphorus (P) stress response in plants, but the underlying molecular mechanisms are poorly understood. Here, we showed that P deficiency significantly increased the endogenous SA content by inducing the SA synthesis pathway, especially for up-regulating the expression of PAL3. Furthermore, rice SA synthetic mutants pal3 exhibited the decreased root and shoot soluble P content, indicating that SA is involved in P homeostasis in plants. Subsequently, application of exogenous SA could increase the root and shoot soluble P content through regulating the root and shoot cell wall P reutilization. In addition, - P + SA treatment highly upregulated the expression of P transporters such as OsPT2 and OsPT6, together with the increased xylem P content, suggesting that SA also participates in the translocation of the P from the root to the shoot. Moreover, both signal molecular nitric oxide (NO) and auxin (IAA) production were enhanced when SA is applied while the addition of respective inhibitor c-PTIO (NO scavenger) and NPA (IAA transport inhibitor) significantly decreased the root and shoot cell wall P remobilization in response to P starvation. Taken together, here SA-IAA-NO-cell wall P reutilization pathway has been discovered in P-starved rice.

Auxin facilitates cell wall phosphorus reutilization in a nitric oxide-ethylene dependent manner in phosphorus deficient rice (Oryza sativa L.).

Auxin is involved in stress responses of plants, such as phosphorus (P) deficiency in rice. Studies on whether auxin participates in cell-wall inorganic phosphorous (Pi) reutilization in Pi-starved rice are scarce. This study explored the mechanisms underlying auxin-facilitated cell-wall Pi-reutilization in rice roots. Pi deficiency rapidly induced auxin accumulation in roots; exogenous auxin [α-naphthaleneacetic acid (NAA), a permeable analog of auxin] elevated soluble Pi content in roots and shoots by increasing pectin content by enhancing activity of pectin methylesterase, and upregulating the transcript level of PHOSPHORUS-TRANSPORTER-2, such that more Pi was translocated to the shoot. Irrespective of the Pi status, exogenous auxin induced nitric oxide (NO) and ethylene production, while exogenous sodium nitroprusside (an NO donor) and 1-aminocyclopropane-1-carboxylic acid (a precursor of ethylene) had no effect on auxin content, suggesting that auxin may act upstream of NO and ethylene. The beneficial effect of NAA in increasing soluble Pi content in roots and shoots disappeared when 2-(4-carboxyphenyl)- 4,4,5,5-tetramethylimidazoline-1-oxyl-3-oxide (a scavenger of NO) or aminoethoxyvinylglycine (an inhibitor of ethylene) were applied, suggesting that auxin facilitates cell-wall Pi-reutilization in a NO-ethylene-dependent manner in Pi-deficient rice. Our study results suggest auxin application as an effective agronomic practice for improving plant Pi nutrition in P-deficient conditions.

The MYB transcription factor MYB103 acts upstream of TRICHOME BIREFRINGENCE-LIKE27 in regulating aluminum sensitivity by modulating the O-acetylation level of cell wall xyloglucan in Arabidopsis thaliana.

Modification of the O-acetylation level of xyloglucan (XyG) appears to affect aluminum (Al) sensitivity in Arabidopsis by modulating its binding capacity to Al. However, the transcriptional regulation of this process remains largely unknown. In our previous studies, we found that the expression of TRICHOME BIREFRINGENCE-LIKE27 (TBL27), which is responsible for the O-acetylation of XyG, was downregulated under Al stress. In the present study, we showed that the expression of an R2R3-type transcription factor-encoding gene, MYB103, was also inhibited by Al exposure and exhibited a co-expression pattern with TBL27 in roots and siliques, suggesting a potential link between MYB103 and TBL27. The loss of function of MYB103 resulted in increased Al sensitivity, as indicated by more inhibited root growth and elevated root Al content compared with the wild type. Moreover, we also detected increased Al accumulation in the root cell wall and the hemicellulose fraction, which was attributed to the changes in the O-acetylation level of XyG rather than the XyG content itself. In addition, further analysis revealed that MYB103 positively activated TBL27 expression by directly binding to the TBL27 promoter region, and TBL27 overexpression in the myb103 mutant rescued the Al-sensitive phenotype of the mutant to the wild-type level. Taken together, we conclude that MYB103 acts upstream of TBL27 to positively regulate Al resistance by modulating the O-acetylation of the cell wall XyG.

Putrescine is involved in root cell wall phosphorus remobilization in a nitric oxide dependent manner.

Phosphorus (P) deficiency is a key limited factor to affect the crop production in rice (Oryza sativa). Recently, accumulating evidences have shown that root cell wall P reutilization could be released to the cytoplasm to alleviate the P starvation and a set of plant hormone and signal molecules have been identified to be involved in it. However, the role of putrescine (Put) in this process is still unknown. In this study, we found that Put with a concentration of 0.001 mM, 0.01 mM and 0.1 mM increased the root and shoot biomass in Nipponbare (Nip) and Kasalath (Kas) under P deficiency, although only 0.1 mM Put could significantly elevated the root and shoot soluble P concentration in Nip. Exogenous 0.1 mM Put treatment reduced the root cell wall P content through increasing the pectin content and pectin methylesterase (PME) activity, indicating that Put can be involved in the root cell wall P reutilization under P starvation. In addition, Put treatment also stimulated the root-to-shoot translocation of P through upregulating the expression of PHOSPHORUS TRANSPORTER 2 (OsPT2) and OsPT8 that responsible for the long-distance transport. Put under P-deficient condition significantly enhanced the Nitric Oxide (NO) accumulation in root and the application of NO inhibitor carboxy-PTIO (cPTIO) could reverse the Put-alleviated P-deficient phenotype, suggesting this process is mediated by NO. In conclusion, our results demonstrated that Put acts upstream of NO to activate the root cell wall P remobilization in rice.

Jasmonic acid is involved in root cell wall phosphorus remobilization through the nitric oxide dependent pathway in rice.

Jasmonic acid (JA) is involved in phosphorus (P) stress in plants, but its underlying molecular mechanisms are still elusive. In this study, we found root endogenous JA content in rice increased under P deficiency (-P), suggesting that JA might participate in P homeostasis in plants. This hypothesis was further confirmed through the addition of exogenous JA (+JA), as this could increase both the root and shoot soluble P content through regulating root cell wall P reutilization. In addition, -P+JA treatment significantly induced the expression of P transporter gene OsPT2, together with increased xylem P content, implying that JA is also important for P translocation from the root to the shoot in P-deficient rice. Furthermore, the accumulation of the molecular signal nitric oxide (NO) was enhanced under -P+JA treatment when compared with -P treatment alone, while the addition of c-PTIO, a scavenger of NO, could reverse the P-deficient phenotype alleviated by JA. Taken together, our results reveal a JA-NO-cell wall P reutilization pathway under P deficiency in rice.