Chromophore-assisted light inactivation of target proteins for singularity biology.

Singularity phenomena are rare events that occur only with a probability of one in tens of thousands and yet play an important role in the fate of the entire system. Recently, an ultra-wide-field microscopy imaging systems, AMATERAS, have been developed to reliably capture singularity phenomena. However, to determine whether a rare phenomenon captured by microscopy is a true singularity phenomenon-one with a significant impact on the entire system-, causal analysis is required. In this section, we introduce the CALI method, which uses light to inactivate molecules as one of the techniques enabling causal analysis. In addition, we discuss the technical innovations of the CALI method that are required to contribute to the future development of singularity biology.

Optical inactivation of intracellular molecules by fast-maturating photosensitizing fluorescence protein, HyperNova.

Photosensitizing fluorescence protein is a promising tool for chromophore-assisted light inactivation (CALI) that enables specific oxidation and inactivation of intracellular molecules. However, a commonly used monomeric photosensitizing fluorescent protein, SuperNova, shows a low CALI efficiency due to its insufficient maturation at 37 °C, thereby limiting the application of CALI to various molecules, especially in mammalian cells. Here, we present a photosensitizing fluorescence protein, HyperNova, with markedly improved maturation at 37 °C, leading to greatly enhanced CALI efficiency. Exploiting this quality, HyperNova enables the application of CALI to variety of molecules such as a mitotic kinase and transcriptional factors that were highly challenging with conventional SuperNova. To further demonstrate the utility of HyperNova, we have also succeeded in developing novel CALI techniques for MAP kinases by HyperNova. Our findings suggest that HyperNova has the potential to expand the molecular toolbox for manipulating biological events in living cells, providing new avenues for investigating cellular signaling pathways.

[CRMP2 binding compound accelerates functional recovery from central nervous system damage].

Brain injury causes temporary or permanent impairment of brain function due to an accident or circulation disorders. Even after rehabilitation training, there are often persistent functional impairments. Recent advances in our understanding of the repair mechanisms of neural circuits after brain injury have led to the possibility that these mechanisms may offer potential therapeutic targets for drugs that promote functional recovery after brain injury. Neuroplasticity is believed to be important for the recovery process after brain injury in the brain regions associated with injured region for compensation. The effectiveness of drugs for restoring brain function after stroke investigated in a variety of animal models and clinical trials has been focused on drugs that act on the monoamine system to modulate neuroplasticity, as well as other targets such as NMDA receptors and CCR5. Recently, we focused on novel small compound, edonerpic maleate, as a drug which facilitates experience-dependent synaptic delivery of AMPA receptor. We found that edonerpic maleate binds to Collapsin-response mediator protein 2, a downstream molecule of Semaphorin and enhance synaptic plasticity by facilitating synaptic delivery of AMPA receptors, thereby promoting functional recovery in a rehabilitation-dependent manner after brain injury in rodents and non-human primates. Further investigations is needed to seek more appropriate drug targets from both preclinical animal studies and clinical trials, and to translate preclinical results into successful clinical trials.

Activity-induced secretion of semaphorin 3A mediates learning.

The semaphorin family is a well-characterized family of secreted or membrane-bound proteins that are involved in activity-independent neurodevelopmental processes, such as axon guidance, cell migration, and immune functions. Although semaphorins have recently been demonstrated to regulate activity-dependent synaptic scaling, their roles in Hebbian synaptic plasticity as well as learning and memory remain poorly understood. Here, using a rodent model, we found that an inhibitory avoidance task, a hippocampus-dependent contextual learning paradigm, increased secretion of semaphorin 3A in the hippocampus. Furthermore, the secreted semaphorin 3A in the hippocampus mediated contextual memory formation likely by driving AMPA receptors into hippocampal synapses via the neuropilin1-plexin A4-semaphorin receptor complex. This signaling process involves alteration of the phosphorylation status of collapsin response mediator protein 2, which has been characterized as a downstream molecule in semaphorin signaling. These findings implicate semaphorin family as a regulator of Hebbian synaptic plasticity and learning.

Phosphorylation of Collapsin Response Mediator Protein 1 (CRMP1) at Tyrosine 504 residue regulates Semaphorin 3A-induced cortical dendritic growth.

Collapsin response mediator proteins (CRMPs) have been identified as mediating proteins of repulsive axon guidance cue Semaphorin-3A (Sema3A). Phosphorylation of CRMPs plays a crucial role in the Sema3A signaling cascade. It has been shown that Fyn phosphorylates CRMP1 at Tyrosine 504 residue (Tyr504); however, the physiological role of this phosphorylation has not been examined. We found that CRMP1 was the most strongly phosphorylated by Fyn among the five members of CRMPs. We confirmed Tyr504 phosphorylation of CRMP1 by Fyn. Immunocytochemistry of mouse dorsal root ganglion (DRG) neurons showed that phosphotyrosine signal in the growth cones was transiently increased in the growth cones upon Sema3A stimulation. Tyr504-phosphorylated CRMP1 also tended to increase after Sema3A simulation. Ectopic expression of a single amino acid mutant of CRMP1 replacing Tyr504 with phenylalanine (CRMP1-Tyr504Phe) suppressed Sema3A-induced growth cone collapse response in chick DRG neurons. CRMP1-Tyr504Phe expression in mouse hippocampal neurons also suppressed Sema3A but not Sema3F-induced growth cone collapse response. Immunohistochemistry showed that Tyr504-phosphorylated CRMP1 was present in the cell bodies and in the dendritic processes of mouse cortical neurons. CRMP1-Tyr504Phe suppressed Sema3A-induced dendritic growth of primary cultured mouse cortical neurons as well as the dendritic development of cortical pyramidal neurons in vivo. Fyn± ; Crmp1± double heterozygous mutant mice exhibited poor development of cortical layer V basal dendrites, which was the similar phenotype observed in Sema3a-/- , Fyn-/- , and Crmp1-/- mice. These findings demonstrate that Tyr504 phosphorylation of CRMP1 by Fyn is an essential step of Sema3A-regulated dendritic development of cortical pyramidal neurons. (247 words).

CRMP2-binding compound, edonerpic maleate, accelerates motor function recovery from brain damage.

Brain damage such as stroke is a devastating neurological condition that may severely compromise patient quality of life. No effective medication-mediated intervention to accelerate rehabilitation has been established. We found that a small compound, edonerpic maleate, facilitated experience-driven synaptic glutamate AMPA (α-amino-3-hydroxy-5-methyl-4-isoxazole-propionic-acid) receptor delivery and resulted in the acceleration of motor function recovery after motor cortex cryoinjury in mice in a training-dependent manner through cortical reorganization. Edonerpic bound to collapsin-response-mediator-protein 2 (CRMP2) and failed to augment recovery in CRMP2-deficient mice. Edonerpic maleate enhanced motor function recovery from internal capsule hemorrhage in nonhuman primates. Thus, edonerpic maleate, a neural plasticity enhancer, could be a clinically potent small compound with which to accelerate rehabilitation after brain damage.

Social isolation suppresses actin dynamics and synaptic plasticity through ADF/cofilin inactivation in the developing rat barrel cortex.

Exposure to a stressful environment early in life can cause psychiatric disorders by disrupting circuit formation. Actin plays central roles in regulating neuronal structure and protein trafficking. We have recently reported that neonatal isolation inactivated ADF/cofilin, the actin depolymerizing factor, resulted in a reduced actin dynamics at spines and an attenuation of synaptic α-amino-3-hydroxy-5-methyl-4-isoxazole propionic acid (AMPA) receptor delivery in the juvenile rat medial prefrontal cortex (mPFC), leading to altered social behaviours. Here, we investigated the impact of neonatal social isolation in the developing rat barrel cortex. Similar to the mPFC study, we detected an increase in stable actin fraction in spines and this resulted in a decreased synaptic AMPA receptor delivery. Thus, we conclude that early life social isolation affects multiple cortical areas with common molecular changes.

Neonatal isolation augments social dominance by altering actin dynamics in the medial prefrontal cortex.

Social separation early in life can lead to the development of impaired interpersonal relationships and profound social disorders. However, the underlying cellular and molecular mechanisms involved are largely unknown. Here, we found that isolation of neonatal rats induced glucocorticoid-dependent social dominance over nonisolated control rats in juveniles from the same litter. Furthermore, neonatal isolation inactivated the actin-depolymerizing factor (ADF)/cofilin in the juvenile medial prefrontal cortex (mPFC). Isolation-induced inactivation of ADF/cofilin increased stable actin fractions at dendritic spines in the juvenile mPFC, decreasing glutamate synaptic AMPA receptors. Expression of constitutively active ADF/cofilin in the mPFC rescued the effect of isolation on social dominance. Thus, neonatal isolation affects spines in the mPFC by reducing actin dynamics, leading to altered social behavior later in life.

Sustained Enhancement of Lateral Inhibitory Circuit Maintains Cross Modal Cortical Reorganization.

Deprivation of one modality can lead to the improvement of other intact modalities. We have previously reported that visual deprivation drives AMPA receptors into synapses from layer4 to 2/3 in the barrel cortex and sharpens functional whisker-barrel map at layer2/3 2 days after the beginning of visual deprivation. Enhanced excitatory synaptic transmission at layer4-2/3 synapses is transient and returns to the base line level a week after the beginning of visual deprivation. Here we found that sharpened whisker-barrel function is maintained at least for a week in visually deprived animals. While increased AMPA receptor-mediated synaptic transmission at layer4-2/3 synapses dropped to the base line a week after the beginning of visual deprivation, lateral inhibitory synaptic transmission onto the neighboring barrel was kept strengthened for a week of visually deprived animals. Thus, transient strengthening of excitatory synapses at layer4-2/3 in the barrel cortex could trigger the enhancement of inhibitory inputs to neighboring barrel, and sustained lateral inhibition can maintain the sharpening of whisker-barrel map in visually deprived animals.

Nogo Receptor Signaling Restricts Adult Neural Plasticity by Limiting Synaptic AMPA Receptor Delivery.

Experience-dependent plasticity is limited in the adult brain, and its molecular and cellular mechanisms are poorly understood. Removal of the myelin-inhibiting signaling protein, Nogo receptor (NgR1), restores adult neural plasticity. Here we found that, in NgR1-deficient mice, whisker experience-driven synaptic α-amino-3-hydroxy-5-methyl-4-isoxazole propionic acid receptor (AMPAR) insertion in the barrel cortex, which is normally complete by 2 weeks after birth, lasts into adulthood. In vivo live imaging by two-photon microscopy revealed more AMPAR on the surface of spines in the adult barrel cortex of NgR1-deficient than on those of wild-type (WT) mice. Furthermore, we observed that whisker stimulation produced new spines in the adult barrel cortex of mutant but not WT mice, and that the newly synthesized spines contained surface AMPAR. These results suggest that Nogo signaling limits plasticity by restricting synaptic AMPAR delivery in coordination with anatomical plasticity.

Social isolation perturbs experience-driven synaptic glutamate receptor subunit 4 delivery in the developing rat barrel cortex.

In neonates, the stress of social isolation can alter developing neural circuits and cause mental illness. However, the molecular and cellular bases for these effects are poorly understood. Experience-driven synaptic AMPA receptor delivery is crucial for circuit organisation during development. In the rat, whisker experience drives the delivery of glutamate receptor subunit 4 (GluA4) but not glutamate receptor subunit 1 (GluA1) to layer 4-2/3 pyramidal synapses in the barrel cortex during postnatal day (P)8-10, whereas GluA1 but not GluA4 is delivered to these synapses during P12-14. We recently reported that early social isolation disrupts experience-driven GluA1 delivery to layer 4-2/3 pyramidal synapses during P12-14. Here, we report that neonatal isolation affects even earlier stages of development by preventing experience-dependent synaptic GluA4 delivery. Thus, social isolation severely affects synaptic maturation throughout early postnatal development.

Serotonin mediates cross-modal reorganization of cortical circuits.

Loss of one type of sensory input can cause improved functionality of other sensory systems. Whereas this form of plasticity, cross-modal plasticity, is well established, the molecular and cellular mechanisms underlying it are still unclear. Here, we show that visual deprivation (VD) increases extracellular serotonin in the juvenile rat barrel cortex. This increase in serotonin levels facilitates synaptic strengthening at layer 4 to layer 2/3 synapses within the barrel cortex. Upon VD, whisker experience leads to trafficking of the AMPA-type glutamate receptors (AMPARs) into these synapses through the activation of ERK and increased phosphorylation of AMPAR subunit GluR1 at the juvenile age when natural whisker experience no longer induces synaptic GluR1 delivery. VD thereby leads to sharpening of the functional whisker-barrel map at layer 2/3. Thus, sensory deprivation of one modality leads to serotonin release in remaining modalities, facilitates GluR1-dependent synaptic strengthening, and refines cortical organization.

Skin-derived precursors differentiating into dopaminergic neuronal cells in the brains of Parkinson disease model rats.

OBJECT: In the authors' previous study, they observed that amino acids 157-171 of von Hippel-Lindau protein (VHL peptide) induced neuronal differentiation of skin-derived precursors. They also noted that transplantation of these differentiated cells into the striata of a Parkinson disease (PD) rat model reduced apomorphine-induced rotations. In the present study, they investigated if these cells produce dopamine in the striatum. METHODS: Skin-derived precursors were differentiated into neurons using VHL peptide and transplanted into the striata of a PD model of rats. Four weeks after transplantation, a probe was inserted into rat striata and extracellular dopamine was extracted by microdialysis. Dopamine levels were measured by high-pressure liquid chromatography. Brain sections were assessed by immunohistochemical analysis for the presence of tyrosine hydroxylase and dopamine transporter. RESULTS: Increased dopamine levels in the striata of the rats were observed after transplantation (p < 0.01), and these were correlated with a reduction in the number of apomorphine-induced rotations (p < 0.05). Skin-derived precursors observed along the tract of transplantation were positive for tyrosine hydroxylase and dopamine transporter. CONCLUSIONS: This study suggests that transplantation of skin-derived precursors, differentiated into neuronal cells using VHL peptide, can improve PD-like symptoms by enabling production of dopamine in the striata in a PD model of rats.

Sex-specific 24-h profile of extracellular serotonin levels in the medial prefrontal cortex.

The medial prefrontal cortex (mPFC) controls emotional responses in many species,receiving serotonergic innervation from the dorsal and median raphe nucleus (DRN and MRN). To examine the sex difference in 24-h profiles of extracellular serotonin (5HT) levels in the mPFC, an in vivo microdialysis study was performed using intact male, diestrous female, and proestrous female rats. Dialysates were automatically collected by a microdialysis probe from the mPFC every 30 min for more than 24 h under freely moving conditions. The levels of 5HT in dialysates were quantified by high performance liquid chromatography. Extracellular 5HT levels exhibited episodic changes in the mPFC of both sexes of rats, with both diestrous and proestrous females exhibiting a clear diurnal change;the 5HT levels were high during the dark phase, but low during the light phase. In contrast,male rats exhibited relatively high 5HT levels throughout the day without significant diurnal changes. At mathematically analyzed trough, males showed higher 5HT levels than diestrous or proestrous females. The overall 24-h 5HT levels in males were significantly greater than proestrous females, but were not different from diestrous females. Further,stereological methods were used to examine the number of tryptophan hydroxylase (TrpH),but no sex differences in the number of TrpH immunoreactive cells in the DRN and MRN were observed. These results suggest that sex and/or the gonadal steroid environment may affect the 24-h profile of extracellular 5HT in the mPFC of rats without changes in the number of 5HT neurons in the DRN and MRN.

Nigral injection of antisense oligonucleotides to synaptotagmin I using HVJ-liposome vectors causes disruption of dopamine release in the striatum and impaired skill learning.

To produce an animal model of a dopa-responsive motor disorder with depletion of dopamine (DA) release in the striatum by dysfunction of the transmitter release machinery of the nigrostriatal DA system, we performed an intra-nigral injection of an HVJ-liposome gene transfer vector containing antisense oligodeoxynucleotides (ODNs) against synaptotagmin I (SytI), a key regulator of Ca(2+)-dependent exocytosis and endocytosis in adult rats. A unilateral intra-nigral injection of HVJ-liposome vectors containing antisense ODNs against SytI (syt-AS) caused a moderate disruption of methamphetamine-induced release of DA in the treated side of the striatum, while the syt-AS treatment did not affect physiological release of DA in the treated striatum. A bilateral intra-nigral injection of HVJ-liposome vectors containing syt-AS induced an impairment of the striatal DA-mediated acquisition of skilled behavior in a rotarod task without any deficits in general motor functions, such as spontaneous locomotor activity, motor adjusting steps, equilibrium function, or muscle strength. These findings suggest that an intra-nigral treatment with HVJ-liposome vectors containing syt-AS may cause a long-lasting nigral knockdown of SytI which, in turn, leads to a moderate dysfunction of the DA release machinery in the terminals of the nigrostriatal DA system and a subsequent mild depletion of DA release in the striatum.

Impaired acquisition of skilled behavior in rotarod task by moderate depletion of striatal dopamine in a pre-symptomatic stage model of Parkinson's disease.

In view of recent findings that suggest that the nigrostriatal dopamine (DA) system plays a role in motor control and the acquisition of habits and skills, we hypothesized that the striatum-based function underlying the acquisition of skilled behaviors might be more vulnerable to dopamine depletion than the motor control. To test this hypothesis, we investigated whether impaired acquisition of skilled behaviors occurs in a pre-symptomatic stage model of Parkinson's disease (PD). By using the microdialysis method and the 6-OHDA-technique to destroy dopamine neurons, we confirmed that rats with unilateral partial lesions of the nigral dopamine cells by 6-OHDA are suitable for a pre-symptomatic stage model of Parkinson's disease. The rats in this model exhibited moderate disruption of striatal dopamine release function and relatively intact motor functions. In a rotarod test, the impaired acquisition of skilled behavior occurred in rats with bilateral partial lesions of the nigral dopamine cells by 6-OHDA. These rats displayed intact general motor functions, such as locomotor activity, adjusting steps, equilibrium function and muscle strength. Based on these results, we concluded that the striatum-based function underlying the acquisition of skilled behaviors or sensorimotor learning may be more vulnerable to dopamine depletion than the motor control.