Altered vitamin K biodistribution and metabolism in experimental and human chronic kidney disease.

Chronic kidney disease (CKD) is accompanied with extensive cardiovascular calcification, in part correlating with functional vitamin K deficiency. Here, we sought to determine causes for vitamin K deficiency beyond reduced dietary intake. Initially, vitamin K uptake and distribution into circulating lipoproteins after a single administration of vitamin K1 plus K2 (menaquinone 4 and menaquinone 7, respectively) was determined in patients on dialysis therapy and healthy individuals. The patients incorporated very little menaquinone 7 but more menaquinone 4 into high density lipoprotein (HDL) and low-density lipoprotein particles than did healthy individuals. In contrast to healthy persons, HDL particles from the patients could not be spiked with menaquinone 7 in vitro and HDL uptake was diminished in osteoblasts. A reduced carboxylation activity (low vitamin K activity) of uremic HDL particles spiked with menaquinone 7 vs. that of controls was confirmed in a bioassay using human primary vascular smooth muscle cells. Kidney menaquinone 4 tissue levels were reduced in 5/6-nephrectomized versus sham-operated C57BL/6 mice after four weeks of a vitamin K rich diet. From the analyzed enzymes involved in vitamin K metabolism, kidney HMG-CoA reductase protein was reduced in both rats and patients with CKD. In a trial on the efficacy and safety of atorvastatin in 1051 patients with type 2 diabetes receiving dialysis therapy, no pronounced vitamin K deficiency was noted. However, the highest levels of PIVKA-II (biomarker of subclinical vitamin K deficiency) were noted when a statin was combined with a proton pump inhibitor. Thus, profound disturbances in lipoprotein mediated vitamin K transport and metabolism in uremia suggest that menaquinone 7 supplementation to patients on dialysis therapy has reduced efficacy.

Chromatin-accessibility estimation from single-cell ATAC-seq data with scOpen.

A major drawback of single-cell ATAC-seq (scATAC-seq) is its sparsity, i.e., open chromatin regions with no reads due to loss of DNA material during the scATAC-seq protocol. Here, we propose scOpen, a computational method based on regularized non-negative matrix factorization for imputing and quantifying the open chromatin status of regulatory regions from sparse scATAC-seq experiments. We show that scOpen improves crucial downstream analysis steps of scATAC-seq data as clustering, visualization, cis-regulatory DNA interactions, and delineation of regulatory features. We demonstrate the power of scOpen to dissect regulatory changes in the development of fibrosis in the kidney. This identifies a role of Runx1 and target genes by promoting fibroblast to myofibroblast differentiation driving kidney fibrosis.

Dysfunction of the key ferroptosis-surveilling systems hypersensitizes mice to tubular necrosis during acute kidney injury.

Acute kidney injury (AKI) is morphologically characterized by a synchronized plasma membrane rupture of cells in a specific section of a nephron, referred to as acute tubular necrosis (ATN). Whereas the involvement of necroptosis is well characterized, genetic evidence supporting the contribution of ferroptosis is lacking. Here, we demonstrate that the loss of ferroptosis suppressor protein 1 (Fsp1) or the targeted manipulation of the active center of the selenoprotein glutathione peroxidase 4 (Gpx4cys/-) sensitize kidneys to tubular ferroptosis, resulting in a unique morphological pattern of tubular necrosis. Given the unmet medical need to clinically inhibit AKI, we generated a combined small molecule inhibitor (Nec-1f) that simultaneously targets receptor interacting protein kinase 1 (RIPK1) and ferroptosis in cell lines, in freshly isolated primary kidney tubules and in mouse models of cardiac transplantation and of AKI and improved survival in models of ischemia-reperfusion injury. Based on genetic and pharmacological evidence, we conclude that GPX4 dysfunction hypersensitizes mice to ATN during AKI. Additionally, we introduce Nec-1f, a solid inhibitor of RIPK1 and weak inhibitor of ferroptosis.

Decoding myofibroblast origins in human kidney fibrosis.

Kidney fibrosis is the hallmark of chronic kidney disease progression; however, at present no antifibrotic therapies exist1-3. The origin, functional heterogeneity and regulation of scar-forming cells that occur during human kidney fibrosis remain poorly understood1,2,4. Here, using single-cell RNA sequencing, we profiled the transcriptomes of cells from the proximal and non-proximal tubules of healthy and fibrotic human kidneys to map the entire human kidney. This analysis enabled us to map all matrix-producing cells at high resolution, and to identify distinct subpopulations of pericytes and fibroblasts as the main cellular sources of scar-forming myofibroblasts during human kidney fibrosis. We used genetic fate-tracing, time-course single-cell RNA sequencing and ATAC-seq (assay for transposase-accessible chromatin using sequencing) experiments in mice, and spatial transcriptomics in human kidney fibrosis, to shed light on the cellular origins and differentiation of human kidney myofibroblasts and their precursors at high resolution. Finally, we used this strategy to detect potential therapeutic targets, and identified NKD2 as a myofibroblast-specific target in human kidney fibrosis.

Novel parietal epithelial cell subpopulations contribute to focal segmental glomerulosclerosis and glomerular tip lesions.

Beside the classical flat parietal epithelial cells (PECs), we investigated proximal tubular epithelial-like cells, a neglected subgroup of PECs. These cells, termed cuboidal PECs, make up the most proximal part of the proximal tubule and may also line parts of Bowman's capsule. Additionally, a third intermediate PEC subgroup was identified at the junction between the flat and cuboidal PEC subgroups at the tubular orifice. The transgenic mouse line PEC-rtTA labeled all three PEC subgroups. Here we show that the inducible Pax8-rtTA mouse line specifically labeled only cuboidal and intermediate PECs, but not flat PECs. In aging Pax8-rtTA mice, cell fate mapping showed no evidence for significant transdifferentiation from flat PECs to cuboidal or intermediate PECs or vice versa. In murine glomerular disease models of crescentic glomerulonephritis, and focal segmental glomerulosclerosis (FSGS), intermediate PECs became more numerous. These intermediate PECs preferentially expressed activation markers CD44 and Ki-67, suggesting that this subgroup of PECs was activated more easily than the classical flat PECs. In mice with FSGS, cuboidal and intermediate PECs formed sclerotic lesions. In patients with FSGS, cells forming the tip lesions expressed markers of intermediate PECs. These novel PEC subgroups form sclerotic lesions and were more prone to cellular activation compared to the classical flat PECs in disease. Thus, colonization of Bowman's capsule by cuboidal PECs may predispose to lesion formation and chronic kidney disease. We propose that tip lesions originate from this novel subgroup of PECs in patients with FSGS.

The transcription factor Dach1 is essential for podocyte function.

Dedifferentiation and loss of podocytes are the major cause of chronic kidney disease. Dach1, a transcription factor that is essential for cell fate, was found in genome-wide association studies to be associated with the glomerular filtration rate. We found that podocytes express high levels of Dach1 in vivo and to a much lower extent in vitro. Parietal epithelial cells (PECs) that are still under debate to be a type of progenitor cell for podocytes expressed Dach1 only at low levels. The transfection of PECs with a plasmid encoding for Dach1 induced the expression of synaptopodin, a podocyte-specific protein, demonstrated by immunocytochemistry and Western blot. Furthermore, synaptopodin was located along actin fibres in a punctate pattern in Dach1-expressing PECs comparable with differentiated podocytes. Moreover, dedifferentiating podocytes of isolated glomeruli showed a significant reduction in the expression of Dach1 together with synaptopodin after 9 days in cell culture. To study the role of Dach1 in vivo, we used the zebrafish larva as an animal model. Knockdown of the zebrafish ortholog Dachd by morpholino injection into fertilized eggs resulted in a severe renal phenotype. The glomeruli of the zebrafish larvae showed morphological changes of the glomerulus accompanied by down-regulation of nephrin and leakage of the filtration barrier. Interestingly, glomeruli of biopsies from patients suffering from diabetic nephropathy showed also a significant reduction of Dach1 and synaptopodin in contrast to control biopsies. Taken together, Dach1 is a transcription factor that is important for podocyte differentiation and proper kidney function.

Investigations of Glucocorticoid Action in GN.

For several decades, glucocorticoids have been used empirically to treat rapid progressive GN. It is commonly assumed that glucocorticoids act primarily by dampening the immune response, but the mechanisms remain incompletely understood. In this study, we inactivated the glucocorticoid receptor (GR) specifically in kidney epithelial cells using Pax8-Cre/GRfl/fl mice. Pax8-Cre/GRfl/fl mice did not exhibit an overt spontaneous phenotype. In mice treated with nephrotoxic serum to induce crescentic nephritis (rapidly progressive GN), this genetic inactivation of the GR in kidney epithelial cells exerted renal benefits, including inhibition of albuminuria and cellular crescent formation, similar to the renal benefits observed with high-dose prednisolone in control mice. However, genetic inactivation of the GR in kidney epithelial cells did not induce the immunosuppressive effects observed with prednisolone. In vitro, prednisolone and the pharmacologic GR antagonist mifepristone each acted directly on primary cultures of parietal epithelial cells, inhibiting cellular outgrowth and proliferation. In wild-type mice, pharmacologic treatment with the GR antagonist mifepristone also attenuated disease as effectively as high-dose prednisolone without the systemic immunosuppressive effects. Collectively, these data show that glucocorticoids act directly on activated glomerular parietal epithelial cells in crescentic nephritis. Furthermore, we identified a novel therapeutic approach in crescentic nephritis, that of glucocorticoid antagonism, which was at least as effective as high-dose prednisolone with potentially fewer adverse effects.

Isolation and Primary Culture of Murine Podocytes with Proven Origin.

Genetic studies on hereditary kidney diseases and in vivo experimental model studies have revealed a critical role for the podocyte in glomerular function and disease. Primary podocyte cultures as well as immortalized podocyte cell lines have been used extensively to study podocyte function. Although, primary cells often more closely resemble the in vivo cells, they may have only a finite replicative life span before they reach senescence. Therefore, the success of studies using primary cell cultures depends on standardized isolation and culture protocols that allow reproducible generation of stable primary cultures.This chapter describes the isolation of primary podocytes with a proven origin using the novel technology of cell-specific genetic tagging. Podocytes are isolated from glomeruli from a podocyte-specific transgenic reporter mouse. The podocyte-specific reporter gene beta-galactosidase is used to identify and specifically isolate the labeled podocytes from other glomerular cells by FACS.

The terminator mouse: salvation for primary cell culture.

The Terminator had to come back from the future already several times in an effort to bring salvation to mankind. In the present issue of Kidney International, Guo et al. brought us a novel transgenic mouse model: the terminator mouse. This highly elegant mouse may facilitate significantly the derivation of primary cultures of a specific cell type from a tissue containing multiple cell populations.

Primary cultures of glomerular parietal epithelial cells or podocytes with proven origin.

Parietal epithelial cells (PECs) are crucially involved in the pathogenesis of rapidly progressive glomerulonephritis (RPGN) as well as in focal and segmental glomerulosclerosis (FSGS). In this study, transgenic mouse lines were used to isolate pure, genetically tagged primary cultures of PECs or podocytes using FACsorting. By this approach, the morphology of primary glomerular epithelial cells in culture could be resolved: Primary podocytes formed either large cells with intracytoplasmatic extensions or smaller spindle shaped cells, depending on specific culture conditions. Primary PECs were small and exhibited a spindle-shaped or polygonal morphology. In the very early phases of primary culture, rapid changes in gene expression (e.g. of WT-1 and Pax-2) were observed. However, after prolonged culture primary PECs and podocytes still segregated clearly in a transcriptome analysis--demonstrating that the origin of primary cell cultures is important. Of the classical markers, synaptopodin and podoplanin expression were differentially regulated the most in primary PEC and podocyte cultures. However, no expression of any endogenous gene allowed to differentiate between the two cell types in culture. Finally, we show that the transcription factor WT1 is also expressed by PECs. In summary, genetic tagging of PECs and podocytes is a novel and necessary tool to derive pure primary cultures with proven origin. These cultures will be a powerful tool for the emerging field of parietal epithelial cell biology.

A tautomerase-null macrophage migration-inhibitory factor (MIF) gene knock-in mouse model reveals that protein interactions and not enzymatic activity mediate MIF-dependent growth regulation.

Macrophage migration-inhibitory factor (MIF) is an upstream regulator of innate immunity and a potential molecular link between inflammation and cancer. The unusual structural homology between MIF and certain tautomerases, which includes both a conserved substrate-binding pocket and a catalytic N-terminal proline (Pro1), has fueled speculation that an enzymatic reaction underlies MIF's biologic function. To address the functional role of the MIF tautomerase activity in vivo, we created a knock-in mouse in which the endogenous mif gene was replaced by one encoding a tautomerase-null, Pro1-->Gly1 MIF protein (P1G-MIF). While P1G-MIF is completely inactive catalytically, it maintains significant, albeit reduced, binding to its cell surface receptor (CD74) and to the intracellular binding protein JAB1/CSN5. P1G-MIF knock-in mice (mif(P1G/P1G)) and cells derived from these mice show a phenotype in assays of growth control and tumor induction that is intermediate between those of the wild type (mif(+/+)) and complete MIF deficiency (mif(-)(/)(-)). These data provide genetic evidence that MIF's intrinsic tautomerase activity is dispensable for this cytokine's growth-regulatory properties and support a role for the N-terminal region in protein-protein interactions.