Characteristics, risk factors and outcomes of Clostridium difficile infections in Greek Intensive Care Units.

BACKGROUND: Clostridium difficile is one of the major causes of diarrhoea among critically ill patients and its prevalence increases exponentially in relation to the use of antibiotics and medical devices. We sought to investigate the incidence of C. difficile infection in Greek units, and identify potential risk factors related to C. difficile infection. METHODS: A prospective multicenter cohort analysis of critically ill patients (3 ICUs from 1/1/2014 to 31/12/2014). RESULTS: Among 970(100%) patients, 95(9.79%) with diarrhoea, were included. Their demographic, comorbidity and clinical characteristics were recorded on admission to the unit. The known predisposing factors for the infection were recorded and the diagnostic tests to confirm C. difficile were conducted, based on the current guidelines. The incidence of C. difficile infection was 1.3% (n = 13). All-cause mortality in patients with diarrhoea, C. difficile infection and attributable mortality in patients with C. difficile infection was 28%, 38.5% and 30.8% respectively. Sequential Organ Failure Assessment (SOFA) scores on admission were significantly lower and prior C. difficile infection was more common in patients with current C. difficile infection. Regarding other potential risk factors, no difference was found between groups. No factor was independently associated with C. difficile infection. CONCLUSIONS: C. difficile infection is low in Greek intensive care units, but remains a serious problem among the critically-ill. Mortality was similar to reports from other countries. No factor was independently associated with C. difficile infection.

Early alterations of the innate and adaptive immune statuses in sepsis according to the type of underlying infection.

INTRODUCTION: Although major changes of the immune system have been described in sepsis, it has never been studied whether these may differ in relation to the type of underlying infection or not. This was studied for the first time. METHODS: The statuses of the innate and adaptive immune systems were prospectively compared in 505 patients. Whole blood was sampled within less than 24 hours of advent of sepsis; white blood cells were stained with monoclonal antibodies and analyzed though a flow cytometer. RESULTS: Expression of HLA-DR was significantly decreased among patients with severe sepsis/shock due to acute pyelonephritis and intraabdominal infections compared with sepsis. The rate of apoptosis of natural killer (NK) cells differed significantly among patients with severe sepsis/shock due to ventilator-associated pneumonia (VAP) and hospital-acquired pneumonia (HAP) compared with sepsis. The rate of apoptosis of NKT cells differed significantly among patients with severe sepsis/shock due to acute pyelonephritis, primary bacteremia and VAP/HAP compared with sepsis. Regarding adaptive immunity, absolute counts of CD4-lymphocytes were significantly decreased among patients with severe sepsis/shock due to community-acquired pneumonia (CAP) and intraabdominal infections compared with sepsis. Absolute counts of B-lymphocytes were significantly decreased among patients with severe sepsis/shock due to CAP compared with sepsis. CONCLUSIONS: Major differences of the early statuses of the innate and adaptive immune systems exist between sepsis and severe sepsis/shock in relation to the underlying type of infection. These results may have a major impact on therapeutics.