Human leukocyte antigen-DQA1*04:01 and rs2040406 variants are associated with elevated risk of childhood Burkitt lymphoma.

Burkitt lymphoma (BL) is responsible for many childhood cancers in sub-Saharan Africa, where it is linked to recurrent or chronic infection by Epstein-Barr virus or Plasmodium falciparum. However, whether human leukocyte antigen (HLA) polymorphisms, which regulate immune response, are associated with BL has not been well investigated, which limits our understanding of BL etiology. Here we investigate this association among 4,645 children aged 0-15 years, 800 with BL, enrolled in Uganda, Tanzania, Kenya, and Malawi. HLA alleles are imputed with accuracy >90% for HLA class I and 85-89% for class II alleles. BL risk is elevated with HLA-DQA1*04:01 (adjusted odds ratio [OR] = 1.61, 95% confidence interval [CI] = 1.32-1.97, P = 3.71 × 10-6), with rs2040406(G) in HLA-DQA1 region (OR = 1.43, 95% CI = 1.26-1.63, P = 4.62 × 10-8), and with amino acid Gln at position 53 versus other variants in HLA-DQA1 (OR = 1.36, P = 2.06 × 10-6). The associations with HLA-DQA1*04:01 (OR = 1.29, P = 0.03) and rs2040406(G) (OR = 1.68, P = 0.019) persist in mutually adjusted models. The higher risk rs2040406(G) variant for BL is associated with decreased HLA-DQB1 expression in eQTLs in EBV transformed lymphocytes. Our results support the role of HLA variation in the etiology of BL and suggest that a promising area of research might be understanding the link between HLA variation and EBV control.

Sickle cell allele HBB-rs334(T) is associated with decreased risk of childhood Burkitt lymphoma in East Africa.

Burkitt lymphoma (BL) is an aggressive B-cell lymphoma that significantly contributes to childhood cancer burden in sub-Saharan Africa. Plasmodium falciparum, which causes malaria, is geographically associated with BL, but the evidence remains insufficient for causal inference. Inference could be strengthened by demonstrating that mendelian genes known to protect against malaria-such as the sickle cell trait variant, HBB-rs334(T)-also protect against BL. We investigated this hypothesis among 800 BL cases and 3845 controls in four East African countries using genome-scan data to detect polymorphisms in 22 genes known to affect malaria risk. We fit generalized linear mixed models to estimate odds ratios (OR) and 95% confidence intervals (95% CI), controlling for age, sex, country, and ancestry. The ORs of the loci with BL and P. falciparum infection among controls were correlated (Spearman's ρ = 0.37, p = .039). HBB-rs334(T) was associated with lower P. falciparum infection risk among controls (OR = 0.752, 95% CI 0.628-0.9; p = .00189) and BL risk (OR = 0.687, 95% CI 0.533-0.885; p = .0037). ABO-rs8176703(T) was associated with decreased risk of BL (OR = 0.591, 95% CI 0.379-0.992; p = .00271), but not of P. falciparum infection. Our results increase support for the etiological correlation between P. falciparum and BL risk.

Mosaic chromosomal alterations in peripheral blood leukocytes of children in sub-Saharan Africa.

In high-income countries, mosaic chromosomal alterations in peripheral blood leukocytes are associated with an elevated risk of adverse health outcomes, including hematologic malignancies. We investigate mosaic chromosomal alterations in sub-Saharan Africa among 931 children with Burkitt lymphoma, an aggressive lymphoma commonly characterized by immunoglobulin-MYC chromosomal rearrangements, 3822 Burkitt lymphoma-free children, and 674 cancer-free men from Ghana. We find autosomal and X chromosome mosaic chromosomal alterations in 3.4% and 1.7% of Burkitt lymphoma-free children, and 8.4% and 3.7% of children with Burkitt lymphoma (P-values = 5.7×10-11 and 3.74×10-2, respectively). Autosomal mosaic chromosomal alterations are detected in 14.0% of Ghanaian men and increase with age. Mosaic chromosomal alterations in Burkitt lymphoma cases include gains on chromosomes 1q and 8, the latter spanning MYC, while mosaic chromosomal alterations in Burkitt lymphoma-free children include copy-neutral loss of heterozygosity on chromosomes 10, 14, and 16. Our results highlight mosaic chromosomal alterations in sub-Saharan African populations as a promising area of research.

IFNL4 Genotypes and Risk of Childhood Burkitt Lymphoma in East Africa.

Interferon lambda 4 (IFN-λ4) is a novel type-III interferon that can be expressed only by carriers of the genetic variant rs368234815-dG within the first exon of the IFNL4 gene. Genetic inability to produce IFN-λ4 (in carriers of the rs368234815-TT/TT genotype) has been associated with improved clearance of hepatitis C virus (HCV) infection. The IFN-λ4-expressing rs368234815-dG allele (IFNL4-dG) is most common (up to 78%) in West sub-Saharan Africa (SSA), compared to 35% of Europeans and 5% of individuals from East Asia. The negative selection of IFNL4-dG outside Africa suggests that its retention in African populations could provide survival benefits, most likely in children. To explore this hypothesis, we conducted a comprehensive association analysis between IFNL4 genotypes and the risk of childhood Burkitt lymphoma (BL), a lethal infection-associated cancer most common in SSA. We used genetic, epidemiologic, and clinical data for 4,038 children from the Epidemiology of Burkitt Lymphoma in East African Children and Minors (EMBLEM) and the Malawi Infections and Childhood Cancer case-control studies. Generalized linear mixed models fit with the logit link controlling for age, sex, country, P. falciparum infection status, population stratification, and relatedness found no significant association between BL risk and 3 coding genetic variants within IFNL4 (rs368234815, rs117648444, and rs142981501) and their combinations. Because BL occurs in children 6-9 years of age who survived early childhood infections, our results suggest that additional studies should explore the associations of IFNL4-dG allele in younger children. This comprehensive study represents an important baseline in defining the health effects of IFN-λ4 in African populations.

Burkitt lymphoma risk shows geographic and temporal associations with Plasmodium falciparum infections in Uganda, Tanzania, and Kenya.

Endemic Burkitt lymphoma (eBL) is a pediatric cancer coendemic with malaria in sub-Saharan Africa, suggesting an etiological link between them. However, previous cross-sectional studies of limited geographic areas have not found a convincing association. We used spatially detailed data from the Epidemiology of Burkitt Lymphoma in East African Children and Minors (EMBLEM) study to assess this relationship. EMBLEM is a case-control study of eBL from 2010 through 2016 in six regions of Kenya, Uganda, and Tanzania. To measure the intensity of exposure to the malaria parasite, Plasmodium falciparum, among children in these regions, we used high-resolution spatial data from the Malaria Atlas Project to estimate the annual number of P. falciparum infections from 2000 through 2016 for each of 49 districts within the study region. Cumulative P. falciparum exposure, calculated as the sum of annual infections by birth cohort, varied widely, with a median of 47 estimated infections per child by age 10, ranging from 4 to 315 infections. eBL incidence increased 39% for each 100 additional lifetime P. falciparum infections (95% CI: 6.10 to 81.04%) with the risk peaking among children aged 5 to 11 and declining thereafter. Alternative models using estimated annual P. falciparum infections 0 to 10 y before eBL onset were inconclusive, suggesting that eBL risk is a function of cumulative rather than recent cross-sectional exposure. Our findings provide population-level evidence that eBL is a phenotype related to heavy lifetime exposure to P. falciparum malaria and support emphasizing the link between malaria and eBL.

Epstein-Barr Virus in Burkitt Lymphoma in Africa Reveals a Limited Set of Whole Genome and LMP-1 Sequence Patterns: Analysis of Archival Datasets and Field Samples From Uganda, Tanzania, and Kenya.

Epstein-Barr virus (EBV) is associated with endemic Burkitt lymphoma (eBL), but the contribution of EBV variants is ill-defined. Studies of EBV whole genome sequences (WGS) have identified phylogroups that appear to be distinct for Asian versus non-Asian EBV, but samples from BL or Africa, where EBV was first discovered, are under-represented. We conducted a phylogenetic analysis of EBV WGS and LMP-1 sequences obtained primarily from BL patients in Africa and representative non-African EBV from other conditions or regions using data from GenBank, Sequence Read Archive, or Genomic Data Commons for the Burkitt Lymphoma Genome Sequencing Project (BLGSP) to generate data to support the use of a simpler biomarker of geographic or phenotypic associations. We also investigated LMP-1 patterns in 414 eBL cases and 414 geographically matched controls in the Epidemiology of Burkitt Lymphoma in East African children and minors (EMBLEM) study using LMP-1 PCR and Sanger sequencing. Phylogenetic analysis revealed distinct genetic patterns of African versus Asian EBV sequences. We identified 281 single nucleotide variations (SNVs) in LMP-1 promoter and coding region, which formed 12 unique patterns (A to L). Nine patterns (A, AB, C, D, F, I, J, K and L) predominated in African EBV, of which four were found in 92% of BL samples (A, AB, D, and H). Predominant patterns were B and G in Asia and H in Europe. EBV positivity in peripheral blood was detected in 95.6% of EMBLEM eBL cases versus 79.2% of the healthy controls (odds ratio [OR] =3.83; 95% confidence interval 2.06-7.14). LMP-1 was successfully sequenced in 66.7% of the EBV DNA positive cases but in 29.6% of the controls (ORs ranging 5-11 for different patterns). Four LMP-1 patterns (A, AB, D, and K) were detected in 63.1% of the cases versus 27.1% controls (ORs ranges: 5.58-11.4). Dual strain EBV infections were identified in WGS and PCR-Sanger data. In conclusion, EBV from Africa is phylogenetically separate from EBV in Asia. Genetic diversity in LMP-1 formed 12 patterns, which showed promising geographic and phenotypic associations. Presence of multiple strain infection should be considered in efforts to refine or improve EBV markers of ancestry or phenotype. Lay Summary: Epstein-Barr virus (EBV) infection, a ubiquitous infection, contributes to the etiology of both Burkitt Lymphoma (BL) and nasopharyngeal carcinoma, yet their global distributions vary geographically with no overlap. Genomic variation in EBV is suspected to play a role in the geographical patterns of these EBV-associated cancers, but relatively few EBV samples from BL have been comprehensively studied. We sought to compare phylogenetic patterns of EBV genomes obtained from BL samples in Africa and from tumor and non-tumor samples from elsewhere. We concluded that EBV obtained from BL in Africa is genetically separate from EBV in Asia. Through comprehensive analysis of nucleotide variations in EBV's LMP-1 gene, we describe 12 LMP-1 patterns, two of which (B and G) were found mostly in Asia. Four LMP-1 patterns (A, AB, D, and F) accounted for 92% of EBVs sequenced from BL in Africa. Our results identified extensive diversity of EBV, but BL in Africa was associated with a limited number of variants identified, which were different from those identified in Asia. Further research is needed to optimize the use of PCR and sequencing to study LMP-1 diversity for classification of EBV variants and for use in epidemiologic studies to characterize geographic and/or phenotypic associations of EBV variants with EBV-associated malignancies, including eBL.

Inverse association of falciparum positivity with endemic Burkitt lymphoma is robust in analyses adjusting for pre-enrollment malaria in the EMBLEM case-control study.

BACKGROUND: Falciparum and endemic Burkitt lymphoma (eBL) are co-endemic in Africa, but the malaria experience in eBL patients is unknown. A lower prevalence of falciparum has been reported in eBL patients, but those results are anecdotally attributed to pre-enrollment anti-malaria treatment. METHODS: We studied 677 eBL patients and 2920 community controls aged 0-15 years enrolled in six regions in Uganda, Tanzania, and Kenya during 2010-2016. Falciparum was diagnosed using thick blood film microscopy (TFM) and antigen-capture rapid diagnostic tests (RDTs). Guardians of the children answered a 40-item structured questionnaire about their child's pre-enrollment lifetime malaria history and treatment, demographics, socioeconomics, animal exposures, fevers, and hospitalizations. We utilized exploratory factor analysis to reduce the 40 questionnaire variables into six factors, including Inpatient malaria and Outpatient malaria factors that were surrogates of pre-enrollment anti-malaria treatment. The six factors accounted for 83-90% of the variance in the questionnaire data. We calculated odds ratios and 95% confidence intervals (OR 95% CI) of association of eBL with falciparum positivity, defined as positive both on TFM or RDTs, or only RDTs (indicative of recent infection) or TFM (indicative of current falciparum infection) versus no infection, using multivariable logistic regression, controlling for group of age (0-2, 3-5, 6-8, 9-11 and 12-15 years), sex, and study site and the afore-mentioned pre-enrollment factors. RESULTS: The prevalence of falciparum infection was 25.6% in the eBL cases and 45.7% in community controls (aOR = 0.43, 95% CI: 0.40, 0.47; P < 0.0001). The results were similar for recent falciparum infection (6.9% versus 13.5%, aOR = 0.44, 95% CI: 0.38, 0.50; P < 0.0001) and current falciparum infection (18.7% versus 32.1%, aOR = 0.47, 95% CI: 0.43, 0.51; P < 0.0001). These aORs for any, recent and current falciparum infection did not change when we adjusted for pre-enrollment factors (aORs = 0.46, =0.44, and = 0.51, respectively) were significantly lower in stratified analysis for any infection in children < 5 years (aOR = 0.46; 95% CI: 0.29, 0.75) or ≥ 10 years (aOR = 0.47; 95% CI: 0.32, 0.71). CONCLUSION: Our study results reduce support for pre-enrollment antimalaria treatment as a sole explanation for the observed lower falciparum prevalence in eBL cases and open a space to consider alternative immunology-based hypotheses.

Extremely high birth prevalence of sickle cell disease in rural Tanzania.

BACKGROUND/OBJECTIVES: Sickle cell disease (SCD) is an important, hidden cause of childhood mortality worldwide. It is most prevalent in sub-Saharan Africa where national newborn screening programs remain unavailable and most children in rural areas are never diagnosed. We conducted a study at a rural district hospital in northern Tanzania to determine the birth prevalence and community awareness of SCD and to determine the feasibility of using point-of-care testing to enroll newborns in a new SCD clinic for ongoing treatment. DESIGN/METHODS: We screened infants at Shirati KMT hospital for SCD using HemoTypeSC, an inexpensive point-of-care test. Infants who screened positive were enrolled in the SCD clinic and instructed to return at 6-12 weeks for confirmatory testing, counseling, and preventive care. RESULTS: A total of 999 newborns were screened from February to September 2019. Among these, 31.6% (315/999) had sickle cell trait and 3.9% (39/999) had SCD. No hemoglobin C was detected. Very few parents knew their own sickle cell status (0.3%). At 5 months after completion, 12 infants from the screening study and 30 additional children had been seen at the SCD clinic for ongoing counseling and care. CONCLUSIONS: Birth prevalence of SCD in rural Tanzania is extremely high and community awareness is low. Newborn point-of-care testing enhances case finding and enables early enrollment in preventive care for SCD, even in rural sub-Saharan Africa with minimal laboratory capacity. SCD-specific clinical services implemented at the district hospital level could expand access to many children and significantly reduce early SCD morbidity and mortality.

Endemic Burkitt lymphoma: a complication of asymptomatic malaria in sub-Saharan Africa based on published literature and primary data from Uganda, Tanzania, and Kenya.

BACKGROUND: Endemic Burkitt lymphoma (eBL) is an aggressive B cell non-Hodgkin lymphoma associated with antigenic stimulation from Plasmodium falciparum malaria. Whether eBL risk is related to malaria parasite density is unknown. To address this issue, children with eBL, asymptomatic and clinical malaria, as a surrogate of malaria parasite density, were assessed. METHODS: Malaria-related laboratory results (parasite density, haemoglobin, platelet count, and white cell count [WBC]) count) were compiled for 4019 eBL cases and 80,532 subjects evaluated for asymptomatic malaria or clinical malaria (severe malaria anaemia, hyperparasitaemia, cerebral malaria, malaria prostration, moderate malaria, and mild malaria) in 21 representative studies published in Africa (mostly East Africa) and 850 eBL cases and 2878 controls with primary data from the Epidemiology of Burkitt Lymphoma in East African Children and Minors (EMBLEM) case-control study in Uganda, Tanzania, and Kenya. The average values of malaria-related laboratory results were computed by condition and trends across single-year age groups were assessed using regression and spline models. RESULTS: Overall, malaria infection or malaria was diagnosed in 37,089 of children compiled from the literature. Children with eBL and asymptomatic parasitaemia/antigenaemia, but not those with clinical malaria, were closest in their mean age (age 7.1-7.2 vs. 7.4-9.8 years), haemoglobin level (10.0-10.4 vs. 11.7-12.3 g/dL), malaria parasite density (2800 vs. 1827-7780 parasites/µL), platelet count (347,000-353,000 vs. 244,000-306,000 platelets/µL), and WBC count (8180-8890 vs. 7100-7410 cells/µL). Parasite density in these two groups peaked between four to five years, then decreased steadily thereafter; conversely, haemoglobin showed a corresponding increase with age. Children with clinical malaria were markedly different: all had an average age below 5 years, had dramatically elevated parasite density (13,905-869,000 parasites/µL) and dramatically decreased platelet count (< 159,000 platelets/µL) and haemoglobin (< 7 g/dL). CONCLUSIONS: eBL and asymptomatic parasitaemia/antigenaemia, but not clinical malaria, were the most similar conditions with respect to mean age and malaria-related laboratory results. These results suggest that children with asymptomatic parasitaemia/antigenaemia may be the population at risk of eBL.

Mean platelet counts are relatively decreased with malaria but relatively increased with endemic Burkitt Lymphoma in Uganda, Tanzania, and Kenya.

Platelet counts are decreased in Plasmodium falciparum malaria, which is aetiologically linked with endemic Burkitt lymphoma (eBL). However, the pattern of platelet counts in eBL cases is unknown. We studied platelet counts in 582 eBL cases and 2 248 controls enrolled in a case-control study in Uganda, Tanzania and Kenya (2010-2016). Mean platelet counts in controls or eBL cases with or without malaria-infection in controls versus eBLcases were compared using Student's t-test. Odds ratios (ORs) and two-sided 95% confidence intervals (95% CIs) were estimated using multiple logistic regression, controlling for age, sex, haemoglobin and white blood cell counts. Platelets were decreased with malaria infection in the controls [263 vs. 339 × 109 platelets/l, P < 0·0001; adjusted OR (aOR) = 3·42, 95% CI: 2·79-4·18] and eBL cases (314 vs. 367 × 109 platelets/l, P-value = 0·002; aOR = 2·36, 95% CI: 1·49-3·73). Unexpectedly, platelets were elevated in eBL cases versus  controls in overall analyses (mean: 353 vs. 307 × 109 platelets/l, P < 0·0001; aOR = 1·41; 95% CI: 1·12-1·77), and when restricted to malaria-positive (mean 314 vs. 263 × 109 platelets/l, P < 0·0001; OR = 2·26; 95% CI: 1·56-3·27) or malaria-negative (mean 367 vs. 339 × 109 platelets/l, P < 0·001; OR = 1·46; 95% CI: 1·17-1·83) subjects. Platelets were decreased with malaria infection in controls and eBL cases but elevated with eBL.

Risk factors for Burkitt lymphoma in East African children and minors: A case-control study in malaria-endemic regions in Uganda, Tanzania and Kenya.

Endemic Burkitt lymphoma (eBL) is the most common childhood cancer in sub-Saharan African countries, however, few epidemiologic studies have been undertaken and none attempted enrolling cases from multiple countries. We therefore conducted a population-based case-control study of eBL in children aged 0-15 years old in six regions in Northern Uganda, Northern Tanzania and Western Kenya, enrolling 862 suspected cases and 2,934 population controls (response rates 98.5-100%), and processing ~40,000 vials of samples using standardized protocols. Risk factor questionnaires were administered, and malaria period prevalence was measured using rapid diagnostic tests (RDTs). A total of 80.9% of the recruited cases were diagnosed as eBL; 61.4% confirmed by histology. Associations with eBL risk were computed using logistic regression models adjusted for relevant confounders. Associations common in at least two countries were emphasized. eBL risk was decreased with higher maternal income and paternal education and elevated with history of inpatient malaria treatment >12 months before enrollment. Reporting malaria-attributed fever up to 6 months before enrollment and malaria-RDT positivity at enrollment were associated with decreased eBL risk. Conversely, reporting exposure to mass malaria suppression programs (e.g., indoor residual insecticide) was associated with elevated risk. HIV seropositivity was associated with elevated eBL risk, but the relative impact was small. The study shows that it is feasible to conduct networked, multisite population-based studies of eBL in Africa. eBL was inversely associated with socioeconomic status, positively associated with inpatient malaria treatment 12 months ago and with living in areas targeted for malaria suppression, which support a role of malaria in eBL.

Burkitt lymphoma research in East Africa: highlights from the 9(th) African organization for research and training in cancer conference held in Durban, South Africa in 2013.

A one-day workshop on Burkitt lymphoma (BL) was held at the 9(th) African Organization for Research and Training in Cancer (AORTIC) conference in 2013 in Durban, South Africa. The workshop featured 15 plenary talks by delegates representing 13 institutions that either fund or implement research on BL targeting AORTIC delegates primarily interested in pediatric oncology. The main outcomes of the meeting were improved sharing of knowledge and experience about ongoing epidemiologic BL research, BL treatment in different settings, the role of cancer registries in cancer research, and opportunities for African scientists to publish in scientific journals. The idea of forming a consortium of BL to improve coordination, information sharing, accelerate discovery, dissemination, and translation of knowledge and to build capacity, while reducing redundant efforts was discussed. Here, we summarize the presentations and discussions from the workshop.

Incidence and trends in Burkitt lymphoma in northern Tanzania from 2000 to 2009.

INTRODUCTION: Burkitt lymphoma (BL) is endemic in parts of Tanzania, but there is scant country or region level data about burden and trends of BL in Tanzania over the past three decades. Here, we update baseline epidemiology of BL in northern Tanzania using recent data. PROCEDURE: Data for childhood BL diagnosed at six hospitals in Mara and Mwanza regions in northern Tanzania during 2000-2009 were compiled. Age, sex, and regional patterns were analyzed. Crude incidence rates of BL were calculated by sex, anatomic site, geographical region, and calendar year. RESULTS: Among 944 cases, 549 (58%) were male (male/female case ratio 1.4:1). Among those with known anatomic site (92%), facial only tumors represented a large proportion of tumors in boys than girls (50% vs. 36%, P < 0.002). Tumors occurred at a younger mean age in boys than girls (6.8 years vs. 7.6 years, P < 0.01). Crude BL incidence was 4.2 per 100,000, but varied by region (3.0 in Mwanza vs. 6.8 in Mara, P = 0.01), by district (1.4-22), by gender (5.0 in boys vs. 4.0 in girls), and by age group (2.0 in 0-4, 7.8 in 5-9, and 3.1 in 10-15 years). BL incidence peaked in 2001 and decreased gradually thereafter. CONCLUSIONS: Our results indicate that male sex, young age, and geographical characteristics are risk factors for BL in Tanzania. BL incidence declined with calendar year, but the significance of this finding is uncertain. Well-designed epidemiological studies of BL in Tanzania may shed light on environmental characteristics underlying these patterns.

African Burkitt lymphoma: age-specific risk and correlations with malaria biomarkers.

African Burkitt lymphoma is an aggressive B-cell, non-Hodgkin lymphoma linked to Plasmodium falciparum malaria. Malaria biomarkers related to onset of African Burkitt lymphoma are unknown. We correlated age-specific patterns of 2,602 cases of African Burkitt lymphoma (60% male, mean ± SD age = 7.1 ± 2.9 years) from Uganda, Ghana, and Tanzania with malaria biomarkers published from these countries. Age-specific patterns of this disease and mean multiplicity of P. falciparum malaria parasites, defined as the average number of distinct genotypes per positive blood sample based on the merozoite surface protein-2 assessed by polymerase chain reaction, were correlated and both peaked between 5 and 9 years. This pattern, which was strong and consistent across regions, contrasted parasite prevalence, which peaked at 2 years and decreased slightly, and geometric mean parasite density, which peaked between 2 and 3 years and decreased sharply. Our findings suggest that concurrent infection with multiple malaria genotypes may be related to onset of African Burkitt lymphoma.