New Insights into IGF-1 Signaling in the Heart.

Insulin-like growth factor (IGF)-1 signaling has multiple physiological roles in cellular growth, metabolism, and aging. Myocardial hypertrophy, cell death, senescence, fibrosis, and electrical remodeling are hallmarks of various heart disease and contributes to the progression of heart failure. This review highlights the critical role of IGF-1 and its cognate receptor in cardiac hypertrophy, aging and remodeling.

Insulin signaling is critical for sinoatrial node maintenance and function.

Insulin and insulin-like growth factor 1 (IGF-1) signaling regulate cellular growth and glucose metabolism in the myocardium. However, their physiological role in the cells of the cardiac conduction system has never been explored. Therefore, we sought to determine the spatiotemporal function of insulin/IGF-1 receptors in the sinoatrial node (SAN). We generated cardiac conduction cell-specific inducible IGF-1 receptor (IGF-1R) knockout (KO) (CSIGF1RKO), insulin receptor (IR) KO (CSIRKO), and IR/IGF-1R double-KO (CSDIRKO) mice and evaluated their phenotypes. Telemetric electrocardiography revealed regular sinus rhythm in CSIGF1RKO mice, indicating that IGF-1R is dispensable for normal pacemaking. In contrast, CSIRKO and CSDIRKO mice exhibited profound sinus bradycardia. CSDIRKO mice showed typical sinus node dysfunction characterized by junctional rhythm and sinus pauses on electrocardiography. Interestingly, the lack of an insulin receptor in the SAN cells of CSIRKO and CSDIRKO mice caused sinus nodal fibrosis. Mechanistically, hyperpolarization-activated cyclic nucleotide-gated channel 4 (HCN4) protein expression significantly decreased in the CSIRKO and CSDIRKO mice relative to the controls. A patch-clamp study of the SAN cells of CSIRKO mice revealed a significant decrease in the funny current, which is responsible for spontaneous diastolic depolarization in the SAN. This result suggested that insulin receptor loss reduces the heart rate via downregulation of the HCN4 channel. Additionally, HCN1 expression was decreased in CSDIRKO mice, explaining their sinus node dysfunction. Our results reveal a previously unrecognized role of insulin/IGF-1 signaling in sinus node structural maintenance and pacemaker function.

The Impact of Fine Particulate Matter 2.5 on the Cardiovascular System: A Review of the Invisible Killer.

Air pollution exerts several deleterious effects on the cardiovascular system, with cardiovascular disease (CVD) accounting for 80% of all premature deaths caused by air pollution. Short-term exposure to particulate matter 2.5 (PM2.5) leads to acute CVD-associated deaths and nonfatal events, whereas long-term exposure increases CVD-associated risk of death and reduces longevity. Here, we summarize published data illustrating how PM2.5 may impact the cardiovascular system to provide information on the mechanisms by which it may contribute to CVDs. We provide an overview of PM2.5, its associated health risks, global statistics, mechanistic underpinnings related to mitochondria, and hazardous biological effects. We elaborate on the association between PM2.5 exposure and CVD development and examine preventive PM2.5 exposure measures and future strategies for combating PM2.5-related adverse health effects. The insights gained can provide critical guidelines for preventing pollution-related CVDs through governmental, societal, and personal measures, thereby benefitting humanity and slowing climate change.

Roles of NAD(P)H:quinone Oxidoreductase 1 in Diverse Diseases.

NAD(P)H:quinone oxidoreductase (NQO) is an antioxidant flavoprotein that catalyzes the reduction of highly reactive quinone metabolites by employing NAD(P)H as an electron donor. There are two NQO enzymes-NQO1 and NQO2-in mammalian systems. In particular, NQO1 exerts many biological activities, including antioxidant activities, anti-inflammatory effects, and interactions with tumor suppressors. Moreover, several recent studies have revealed the promising roles of NQO1 in protecting against cardiovascular damage and related diseases, such as dyslipidemia, atherosclerosis, insulin resistance, and metabolic syndrome. In this review, we discuss recent developments in the molecular regulation and biochemical properties of NQO1, and describe the potential beneficial roles of NQO1 in diseases associated with oxidative stress.

IGF-1 protects against angiotensin II-induced cardiac fibrosis by targeting αSMA.

The insulin-like growth factor 1 receptor (IGF-1R) signaling in cardiomyocytes is implicated in physiological hypertrophy and myocardial aging. Although fibroblasts account for a small amount of the heart, they are activated when the heart is damaged to promote cardiac remodeling. However, the role of IGF-1R signaling in cardiac fibroblasts is still unknown. In this study, we investigated the roles of IGF-1 signaling during agonist-induced cardiac fibrosis and evaluated the molecular mechanisms in cultured cardiac fibroblasts. Using an experimental model of cardiac fibrosis with angiotensin II/phenylephrine (AngII/PE) infusion, we found severe interstitial fibrosis in the AngII/PE infused myofibroblast-specific IGF-1R knockout mice compared to the wild-type mice. In contrast, low-dose IGF-1 infusion markedly attenuated AngII-induced cardiac fibrosis by inhibiting fibroblast proliferation and differentiation. Mechanistically, we demonstrated that IGF-1-attenuated AngII-induced cardiac fibrosis through the Akt pathway and through suppression of rho-associated coiled-coil containing kinases (ROCK)2-mediated α-smooth muscle actin (αSMA) expression. Our study highlights a novel function of the IGF-1/IGF-1R signaling in agonist-induced cardiac fibrosis. We propose that low-dose IGF-1 may be an efficacious therapeutic avenue against cardiac fibrosis.

Application of Animal Models in Diabetic Cardiomyopathy.

Diabetic heart disease is a growing and important public health risk. Apart from the risk of coronary artery disease or hypertension, diabetes mellitus (DM) is a well-known risk factor for heart failure in the form of diabetic cardiomyopathy (DiaCM). Currently, DiaCM is defined as myocardial dysfunction in patients with DM in the absence of coronary artery disease and hypertension. The underlying pathomechanism of DiaCM is partially understood, but accumulating evidence suggests that metabolic derangements, oxidative stress, increased myocardial fibrosis and hypertrophy, inflammation, enhanced apoptosis, impaired intracellular calcium handling, activation of the renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system, mitochondrial dysfunction, and dysregulation of microRNAs, among other factors, are involved. Numerous animal models have been used to investigate the pathomechanisms of DiaCM. Despite some limitations, animal models for DiaCM have greatly advanced our understanding of pathomechanisms and have helped in the development of successful disease management strategies. In this review, we summarize the current pathomechanisms of DiaCM and provide animal models for DiaCM according to its pathomechanisms, which may contribute to broadening our understanding of the underlying mechanisms and facilitating the identification of possible new therapeutic targets.

Characterization of Circular RNAs in Vascular Smooth Muscle Cells with Vascular Calcification.

Circular RNAs (circRNAs) are generally formed by back splicing and are expressed in various cells. Vascular calcification (VC), a common complication of chronic kidney disease (CKD), is often associated with cardiovascular disease. The relationship between circRNAs and VC has not yet been studied. Inorganic phosphate (Pi) was used to treat rat vascular smooth muscle cells to induce VC. circRNAs were identified by analyzing RNA sequencing (RNA-seq) data, and their expression change during VC was validated. The selected circRNAs, including circSamd4a, circSmoc1-1, circMettl9, and circUxs1, were resistant to RNase R digestion and mostly localized in the cytoplasm. While silencing circSamd4a promoted VC, overexpressing it reduced VC in calcium assay and Alizarin red S (ARS) staining. In addition, microRNA (miRNA) microarray, luciferase reporter assay, and calcium assay suggested that circSamd4a could act as a miRNA suppressor. Our data show that circSamd4a has an anti-calcification role by functioning as a miRNA sponge. Moreover, mRNAs that can interact with miRNAs were predicted from RNA-seq and bioinformatics analysis, and the circSamd4a-miRNA-mRNA axis involved in VC was verified by luciferase reporter assay and calcium assay. Since circSamd4a is conserved in humans, it can serve as a novel therapeutic target in resolving VC.

Therapeutic strategy for atherosclerosis based on bone-vascular axis hypothesis.

As the world's older population grows, the disease burden of atherosclerosis is rapidly increasing, causing significant morbidity and mortality worldwide. Despite recent improvements in the control of vascular risk factors, a significant number of patients still suffer from vascular events and the progression of atherosclerosis. Aging also results in decreased bone mineral density. Since bones are a home for hematopoietic stem cells as well as reservoirs of the minerals required for vascular integrity, it is conceivable that a novel therapeutic strategy for atherosclerosis treatment can be developed by focusing on the complex interplay between bones and blood vessels. The correction of mineral dyshomeostasis, disrupted bone marrow microenvironments, and triggered inflammatory cell production provide potential therapeutic options against the atherosclerotic process. This review highlights recent advances in our understanding of the bone-vascular link and discusses new insights into treatment targets for atherosclerosis.

RANKL blockade suppresses pathological angiogenesis and vascular leakage in ischemic retinopathy.

Receptor activator of NF-κB ligand (RANKL) is a member of the TNF superfamily. RANKL increases endothelial permeability and induces angiogenesis, suggesting its critical roles in the vasculature. Despite the evidence implicating RANKL in vascular pathology, its role in ischemic retinopathy has not been previously reported. In this study, neonatal mice were exposed to 75% oxygen from postnatal day (P)7 to P12 to induce vaso-obliteration, and then returned to room air from P12 to P17, causing the retina to become hypoxic and inducing vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) signaling, which produces pathological neovascularization. On P12, the mice received a single intravitreal injection of control IgG1 or RANK-Fc, and retinas were obtained at P17. On P17, RANKL was expressed strongly and selectively in the neovascular tufts (NVT) area. RANKL colocalized with αSMA or PDGFRß in NVT. However, co-immunostaining revealed that CD31-positive areas were not the same as RANKL, which indicates that RANKL might be produced by retinal pericytes, not endothelial cells. Consistent with this finding, chemical hypoxia upregulated RANKL expression in cultured human retinal pericytes but not in endothelial cells. Treatment with RANK-Fc markedly reduced the NVT area compared to that in mice administered the IgG1 injection. In contrast, the central avascular region of RANKL-Fc retina was comparable to the controls. In addition, we assessed retinal vascular permeability using FITC-labeled dextran. RANK-Fc treated mice displayed decreased vascular leakages compared to those injected with IgG1. Our work supports the use of an RANKL blockade as a potential therapeutic approach against ischemic retinopathies.

Long noncoding RNAs in vascular smooth muscle cells regulate vascular calcification.

Vascular calcification is characterized by the accumulation of hydroxyapatite crystals, which is a result of aberrant mineral metabolism. Although many clinical studies have reported its adverse effects on cardiovascular morbidity, the molecular mechanism of vascular calcification, especially the involvement of long noncoding RNAs (lncRNAs), is not yet reported. From the transcriptomic analysis, we discovered hundreds of lncRNAs differentially expressed in rat vascular smooth muscle cells (VSMCs) treated with inorganic phosphate, which mimics vascular calcification. We focused on Lrrc75a-as1 and elucidated its transcript structure and confirmed its cytoplasmic localization. Our results showed that calcium deposition was elevated after knockdown of Lrrc75a-as1, while its overexpression inhibited calcium accumulation in A10 cells. In addition, Lrrc75a-as1 attenuated VSMCs calcification by decreasing the expression of osteoblast-related factors. These findings suggest that Lrrc75a-as1 acts as a negative regulator of vascular calcification, and may serve as a possible therapeutic target in vascular calcification.

Inhibition of heat shock protein 70 blocks the development of cardiac hypertrophy by modulating the phosphorylation of histone deacetylase 2.

AIMS: Previously, we reported that phosphorylation of histone deacetylase 2 (HDAC2) and the resulting activation causes cardiac hypertrophy. Through further study of the specific binding partners of phosphorylated HDAC2 and their mechanism of regulation, we can better understand how cardiac hypertrophy develops. Thus, in the present study, we aimed to elucidate the function of one such binding partner, heat shock protein 70 (HSP70). METHODS AND RESULTS: Primary cultures of rat neonatal ventricular cardiomyocytes and H9c2 cardiomyoblasts were used for in vitro cellular experiments. HSP70 knockout (KO) mice and transgenic (Tg) mice that overexpress HSP70 in the heart were used for in vivo analysis. Peptide-precipitation and immunoprecipitation assay revealed that HSP70 preferentially binds to phosphorylated HDAC2 S394. Forced expression of HSP70 increased phosphorylation of HDAC2 S394 and its activation, but not that of S422/424, whereas knocking down of HSP70 reduced it. However, HSP70 failed to phosphorylate HDAC2 in the cell-free condition. Phosphorylation of HDAC2 S394 by casein kinase 2α1 enhanced the binding of HSP70 to HDAC2, whereas dephosphorylation induced by the catalytic subunit of protein phosphatase 2A (PP2CA) had the opposite effect. HSP70 prevented HDAC2 dephosphorylation by reducing the binding of HDAC2 to PP2CA. HSP70 KO mouse hearts failed to phosphorylate S394 HDAC2 in response to isoproterenol infusion, whereas Tg overexpression of HSP70 increased the phosphorylation and activation of HDAC2. 2-Phenylethynesulfonamide (PES), an HSP70 inhibitor, attenuated cardiac hypertrophy induced either by phenylephrine in neonatal ventricular cardiomyocytes or by aortic banding in mice. PES reduced HDAC2 S394 phosphorylation and its activation by interfering with the binding of HSP70 to HDAC2. CONCLUSION: These results demonstrate that HSP70 specifically binds to S394-phosphorylated HDAC2 and maintains its phosphorylation status, which results in HDAC2 activation and the development of cardiac hypertrophy. Inhibition of HSP70 has possible application as a therapeutic.

Thyrocyte-specific deletion of insulin and IGF-1 receptors induces papillary thyroid carcinoma-like lesions through EGFR pathway activation.

Insulin and insulin-like growth factor (IGF)-1 signaling in the thyroid are thought to be permissive for the coordinated regulation by thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH) of thyrocyte proliferation and hormone production. However, the integrated role of insulin receptor (IR) and IGF-1 receptor (IGF-1R) in thyroid development and function has not been explored. Here, we generated thyrocyte-specific IR and IGF-1R double knockout (DTIRKO) mice to precisely evaluate the coordinated functions of these receptors in the thyroid of neonates and adults. Neonatal DTIRKO mice displayed smaller thyroids, paralleling defective folliculogenesis associated with repression of the thyroid-specific transcription factor Foxe1. By contrast, at postnatal day 14, absence of IR and IGF-1R paradoxically induced thyrocyte proliferation, which was mediated by mTOR-dependent signaling pathways. Furthermore, we found elevated production of TSH during the development of follicular hyperplasia at 8 weeks of age. By 50 weeks, all DTIRKO mice developed papillary thyroid carcinoma (PTC)-like lesions that correlated with induction of the ErbB pathway. Taken together, these data define a critical role for IR and IGF-1R in neonatal thyroid folliculogenesis. They also reveal an important reciprocal relationship between IR/IGF-1R and TSH/ErbB signaling in the pathogenesis of thyroid follicular hyperplasia and, possibly, of papillary carcinoma.

Comparison of Adherence to Glimepiride/Metformin Sustained Release Once-daily Versus Glimepiride/Metformin Immediate Release BID Fixed-combination Therapy Using the Medication Event Monitoring System in Patients With Type 2 Diabetes.

PURPOSE: The purpose of this study was to compare the adherence of the glimepiride/metformin sustained release (GM-SR) once-daily fixed-dose combination and glimepiride/metformin immediate release (GM-IR) BID fixed-dose combination in type 2 diabetes therapies. METHODS: An open-label, randomized, multicenter, parallel-group study was conducted at 11 hospitals in the Republic of Korea. A total of 168 patients with type 2 diabetes treated with >4 mg of glimepiride and 1000 mg of metformin by using free or fixed-dose combination therapy for at least 2 weeks were enrolled. Patients were randomized to receive GM-SR 4/1000 mg once-daily or GM-IR 2/500 mg BID for 24 weeks. Adherence was compared by using the Medication Event Monitoring System (MEMS). FINDINGS: A significant difference in adherence was observed between the 2 groups. Overall adherence, defined by the number of container openings divided by the number of prescribed doses, was 91.7% in the GM-SR group and 88.6% in the GM-IR group (P < 0.001). The percentage of treatment days with the correct number of doses taken was 85.3% in the GM-SR group and 75.1% in the GM-IR group (P < 0.001). The percentage of missed doses was 11.7% in the GM-SR group and 15.3% in the GM-IR group (P < 0.001). The percentage of doses taken in the correct time window and therapeutic coverage were higher in the GM-SR group (P < 0.001). There was no significant difference in glycosylated hemoglobin changes or number of adverse events between the 2 groups. A total of 168 patients randomized to receive GM-SR once daily (86 patients) or GM-IR twice daily (82 patients). Mean Age were 57.8 ± 9.6 years old. Male : female ratio was 47.6 : 52.4 %. Body mass index were 66.3 ± 12.0 kg/m2, Diabetes duration were 10.5 ± 6.6 years. IMPLICATIONS: This study showed that patient adherence with GM-SR once daily was significantly better than with GM-IR BID. ClinicalTrials.gov identifier: NCT01620489.

Identification of long noncoding RNAs involved in muscle differentiation.

Long noncoding RNAs (lncRNAs) are a large class of regulatory RNAs with diverse roles in cellular processes. Thousands of lncRNAs have been discovered; however, their roles in the regulation of muscle differentiation are unclear because no comprehensive analysis of lncRNAs during this process has been performed. In the present study, by combining diverse RNA sequencing datasets obtained from public database, we discovered lncRNAs that could behave as regulators in the differentiation of smooth or skeletal muscle cells. These analyses confirmed the roles of previously reported lncRNAs in this process. Moreover, we discovered dozens of novel lncRNAs whose expression patterns suggested their possible involvement in the phenotypic switch of vascular smooth muscle cells. The comparison of lncRNA expression change suggested that many lncRNAs have common roles during the differentiation of smooth and skeletal muscles, while some lncRNAs may have opposite roles in this process. The expression change of lncRNAs was highly correlated with that of their neighboring genes, suggesting that they may function as cis-acting lncRNAs. Furthermore, within the lncRNA sequences, there were binding sites for miRNAs with expression levels inversely correlated with the expression of corresponding lncRNAs during differentiation, suggesting a possible role of these lncRNAs as competing endogenous RNAs. The lncRNAs identified in this study will be a useful resource for future studies of gene regulation during muscle differentiation.

Connexin43 and zonula occludens-1 are targets of Akt in cardiomyocytes that correlate with cardiac contractile dysfunction in Akt deficient hearts.

While deletion of Akt1 results in a smaller heart size and Akt2-/- mice are mildly insulin resistant, Akt1-/-/Akt2-/- mice exhibit perinatal lethality, indicating a large degree of functional overlap between the isoforms of the serine/threonine kinase Akt. The present study aimed to determine the cooperative contribution of Akt1 and Akt2 on the structure and contractile function of adult hearts. To generate an inducible, cardiomyocyte-restricted Akt2 knockout (KO) model, Akt2flox/flox mice were crossed with tamoxifen-inducible MerCreMer transgenic (MCM) mice and germline Akt1-/- mice to generate the following genotypes:Akt1+/+; Akt2flox/flox (WT), Akt2flox/flox; α-MHC-MCM (iAkt2 KO), Akt1-/-, and Akt1-/-; Akt2flox/flox; α-MHC-MCM mice (Akt1-/-/iAkt2 KO). At 28 days after the first tamoxifen injection, Akt1-/-/iAkt2 KO mice developed contractile dysfunction paralleling increased atrial and brain natriuretic peptide (ANP and BNP) levels, and repressed mitochondrial gene expression. Neither cardiac fibrosis nor apoptosis were detected in Akt1-/-/iAkt2 KO hearts. To explore potential molecular mechanisms for contractile dysfunction, we investigated myocardial microstructure before the onset of heart failure. At 3 days after the first tamoxifen injection, Akt1-/-/iAkt2 KO hearts showed decreased expression of connexin43 (Cx43) and connexin-interacting protein zonula occludens-1 (ZO-1). Furthermore, Akt1/2 silencing significantly decreased both Cx43 and ZO-1 expression in cultured neonatal rat cardiomyocytes in concert with reduced beating frequency. Akt1 and Akt2 are required to maintain cardiac contraction. Loss of Akt signaling disrupts gap junction protein, which might precipitate early contractile dysfunction prior to heart failure in the absence of myocardial remodeling, such as hypertrophy, fibrosis, or cell death.

Insulin-like growth factor-1 signaling in cardiac aging.

Cardiovascular disease (CVD) is the leading cause of death in most developed countries. Aging is associated with enhanced risk of CVD. Insulin-like growth factor-1 (IGF-1) binds to its cognate receptor, IGF-1 receptor (IGF-1R), and exerts pleiotropic effects on cell growth, differentiation, development, and tissue repair. Importantly, IGF-1/IGF-1R signaling is implicated in cardiac aging and longevity. Cardiac aging is an intrinsic process that results in cardiac dysfunction, accompanied by molecular and cellular changes. In this review, we summarize the current state of knowledge regarding the link between the IGF-1/IGF-1R system and cardiac aging. The biological effects of IGF-1R and insulin receptor will be discussed and compared. Furthermore, we describe data regarding how deletion of IGF-1R in cardiomyocytes of aged knockout mice may delay the development of senescence-associated myocardial pathologies. This article is part of a Special issue entitled Cardiac adaptations to obesity, diabetes and insulin resistance, edited by Professors Jan F.C. Glatz, Jason R.B. Dyck and Christine Des Rosiers.

Glucose transporter 4-deficient hearts develop maladaptive hypertrophy in response to physiological or pathological stresses.

Pathological cardiac hypertrophy may be associated with reduced expression of glucose transporter 4 (GLUT4) in contrast to exercise-induced cardiac hypertrophy, where GLUT4 levels are increased. However, mice with cardiac-specific deletion of GLUT4 (G4H-/-) have normal cardiac function in the unstressed state. This study tested the hypothesis that cardiac GLUT4 is required for myocardial adaptations to hemodynamic demands. G4H-/- and control littermates were subjected to either a pathological model of left ventricular pressure overload [transverse aortic constriction (TAC)] or a physiological model of endurance exercise (swim training). As predicted after TAC, G4H-/- mice developed significantly greater hypertrophy and more severe contractile dysfunction. Somewhat surprisingly, after exercise training, G4H-/- mice developed increased fibrosis and apoptosis that was associated with dephosphorylation of the prosurvival kinase Akt in concert with an increase in protein levels of the upstream phosphatase protein phosphatase 2A (PP2A). Exercise has been shown to decrease levels of ceramide; G4H-/- hearts failed to decrease myocardial ceramide in response to exercise. Furthermore, G4H-/- hearts have reduced levels of the transcriptional coactivator peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor-γ coactivator-1, lower carnitine palmitoyl-transferase activity, and reduced hydroxyacyl-CoA dehydrogenase activity. These basal changes may also contribute to the impaired ability of G4H-/- hearts to adapt to hemodynamic stresses. In conclusion, GLUT4 is required for the maintenance of cardiac structure and function in response to physiological or pathological processes that increase energy demands, in part through secondary changes in mitochondrial metabolism and cellular stress survival pathways such as Akt.NEW & NOTEWORTHY Glucose transporter 4 (GLUT4) is required for myocardial adaptations to exercise, and its absence accelerates heart dysfunction after pressure overload. The requirement for GLUT4 may extend beyond glucose uptake to include defects in mitochondrial metabolism and survival signaling pathways that develop in its absence. Therefore, GLUT4 is critical for responses to hemodynamic stresses.

Diabetic cardiomyopathy: where we are and where we are going.

The global burden of diabetes mellitus and its related complications are currently increasing. Diabetes mellitus affects the heart through various mechanisms including microvascular impairment, metabolic disturbance, subcellular component abnormalities, cardiac autonomic dysfunction, and a maladaptive immune response. Eventually, diabetes mellitus can cause functional and structural changes in the myocardium without coronary artery disease, a disorder known as diabetic cardiomyopathy (DCM). There are many diagnostic tools and management options for DCM, although it is difficult to detect its development and effectively prevent its progression. In this review, we summarize the current research regarding the pathophysiology and pathogenesis of DCM. Moreover, we discuss emerging diagnostic evaluation methods and treatment strategies for DCM, which may help our understanding of its underlying mechanisms and facilitate the identification of possible new therapeutic targets.

The microRNA miR-124 inhibits vascular smooth muscle cell proliferation by targeting S100 calcium-binding protein A4 (S100A4).

S100 calcium-binding protein A4 (S100A4) induces proliferation and migration of vascular smooth muscle cells (VSMCs). We aimed to find the microRNA regulating S100A4 expression. S100A4 transcripts are abruptly increased in the acute phase of carotid arterial injury 1 day later (at day 1) but gradually decreases at days 7 and 14. Bioinformatics analysis reveals that miR-124 targets S100A4. VSMC survival is attenuated by miR-124 mimic but increased by miR-124 inhibitor. miR-124 decreases immediately after carotid arterial injury but dramatically increases at days 7 and 14. miR-124 inhibitor-induced cell proliferation is blocked by S100A4 siRNA, whereas miR-124-induced cell death is recovered by S100A4. Our findings suggest that miR-124 is a novel regulator of VSMC proliferation and may play a role in the development of neointimal proliferation.

Impact of diabetes mellitus and chronic liver disease on the incidence of dementia and all-cause mortality among patients with dementia.

This study investigated the effects of the presence of type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2D) and/or chronic liver disease (CLD) on the incidence and prognosis of dementia during a 10-year period in Korea using a nationwide population-based dataset from the Korea National Health Insurance Service.To assess the impact of T2D and CLD on the incidence of dementia, we included subjects aged ≥60 years without dementia, T2D, and CLD from 2003 to 2005. We created another cohort for evaluating the all-cause mortality in subjects with dementia between 2003 and 2005. The participants were categorized into 4 groups: control (neither CLD nor T2D), CLD-only, T2D-only, and T2D-and-CLD groups, and they were followed up until 2013.The incidence of dementia was higher in the T2D-only group than in the control and CLD-only groups (2.78 vs. 2.04 and 2.00 per 1000 person-years). After adjustment for age, gender, and comorbid conditions, both T2D and CLD increased the risk of any type of dementia; however, the impact of CLD alone was much lower [hazard ratio (HR) 1.07, 95% confidence interval (CI): 1.06-1.08] than that of T2D alone (HR 1.27, 95% CI: 1.27-1.28). The risk of dementia did not significantly change in patients with the co-occurrence of T2D and CLD compared to those with T2D alone. The all-cause mortality rate was the lowest in the control group (2.59 per 1000 person-years) and the highest in the T2D-and-CLD group (3.77 per 1000 person-years). Presence of T2D or CLD alone was associated with higher mortality (HR 1.46 and HR 1.21, respectively) compared with in the absence of both the diseases. Furthermore, the presence of both the diseases further significantly increased the mortality rate compared to the presence of each disease alone (HR 1.67, 95% CI: 1.65-1.69).In conclusion, this study found that the incidence of dementia was much higher in patients with T2D. CLD was associated with a modest increase in risk of dementia; however, there was no additive effect with T2D. In the population with dementia, however, the presence of CLD was associated with high mortality in patients with or without T2D.