Utilization of 2D materials in aqueous zinc ion batteries for safe energy storage devices.

Aqueous rechargeable battery has been an intense topic of research recently due to the significant safety issues of conventional Li-ion batteries (LIBs). Amongst the various candidates of aqueous batteries, aqueous zinc ion batteries (AZIBs) hold great promise as a next generation safe energy storage device due to its low cost, abundance in nature, low toxicity, environmental friendliness, low redox potential, and high theoretical capacity. Yet, the promise has not been realized due to their limitations, such as lower capacity compared to traditional LIB, dendrite growth, detrimental degradation of electrode materials structure as ions intercalate/de-intercalate, and gas evolution/corrosion at the electrodes, which remains a significant challenge. To address the challenges, various 2D materials with different physiochemical characteristics have been utilized. This review explores fundamental physiochemical characteristics of widely used 2D materials in AZIBs, including graphene, MoS2, MXenes, 2D metal organic framework, 2D covalent organic framework, and 2D transition metal oxides, and how their characteristics have been utilized or modified to address the challenges in AZIBs. The review also provides insights and perspectives on how 2D materials can help to realize the full potential of AZIBs for next-generation safe and reliable energy storage devices.

Advances in high-voltage supercapacitors for energy storage systems: materials and electrolyte tailoring to implementation.

To achieve a zero-carbon-emission society, it is essential to increase the use of clean and renewable energy. Yet, renewable energy resources present constraints in terms of geographical locations and limited time intervals for energy generation. Therefore, there is a surging demand for developing high-performance energy storage systems (ESSs) to effectively store the energy during the peak time and use the energy during the trough period. To this end, supercapacitors hold great promise as short-term ESSs for rapid power recovery or frequency regulation to improve the quality and reliability of power supply. In particular, the electrical double layer capacitor (EDLC) which offers long and stable cycle retention, high power densities, and fast charge/discharge characteristics with a moderate operating voltage window, is a suitable candidate. Yet, for implementation of the EDLC in ESSs, further research effort is required in terms of increasing the operating voltage and energy densities while maintaining the long-term cycle stability and power densities which are desirable aspects for ESS operation. Here, we examine the advances in EDLC research to achieve a high operating voltage window along with high energy densities, covering from materials and electrolytes to long-term device perspectives for next-generation supercapacitor-based ESSs.

TGF-ß1 upregulates Sar1a expression and induces procollagen-I secretion in hypertrophic scarring fibroblasts.

Hypertrophic scarring (HTS) is a common fibroproliferative disorder that typically follows thermal and other injuries involving the deep dermis. The underlying pathogenic mechanisms are regulated by transforming growth factor-ß (TGF-ß); however, the exact mechanisms in HTS have not been elucidated. We conducted this study to explore the cellular signaling mechanisms for expression of Sar1a, a coat protein complex II-associated small GTPase, in HTS fibroblasts (HTSF). We found that Sar1a was upregulated in HTSF as compared to that in normal fibroblasts. Furthermore, stimulation of TGF-ß1 increased the expression of Sar1a in HTSF, and small interfering RNA for Sar1a suppressed procollagen-I (PC-I) secretion. Next we investigated the signaling mechanism from TGF-ß1 to Sar1a expression and its association with PC-I secretion. In the presence of TGF-ß-activated kinase 1 (TAK1), c-Jun N-terminal kinase, or p38 inhibitors, the effect of TGF-ß1 on Sar1a expression and PC-I secretion significantly decreased; however, it had no effect on collagen-1A (Col-1A) expression. Further, the inhibitors of Smad3 or extracellular signal-regulated kinases inhibited TGF-ß1-induced Col-1A expression but had no effect on PC-I secretion and Sar1a expression. Taken together, our results suggested that TGF-ß1 induces Sar1a expression through TAK1 signaling and this signaling event regulates PC-I secretion in HTSF.

LED Light-Induced ROS Differentially Regulates Focal Adhesion Kinase Activity in HaCaT Cell Viability.

In this study, changes in cell signaling mechanisms in skin cells induced by various wavelengths and intensities of light-emitting diodes (LED) were investigated, focusing on the activity of focal adhesion kinase (FAK) in particular. We examined the effect of LED irradiation on cell survival, the generation of intracellular reactive oxygen species (ROS), and the activity of various cell-signaling proteins. Red LED light increased cell viability at all intensities, whereas strong green and blue LED light reduced cell viability, and this effect was reversed by NAC or DPI treatment. Red LED light caused an increase in ROS formation according to the increase in the intensity of the LED light, and green and blue LED lights led to sharp increases in ROS formation. In the initial reaction to LEDs, red LED light only increased the phosphorylation of FAK and extracellular-signal regulated protein kinase (ERK), whereas green and blue LED lights increased the phosphorylation of inhibitory-κB Kinase α (IKKα), c-jun N-terminal kinase (JNK), and p38. The phosphorylation of these intracellular proteins was reduced via FAK inhibitor, NAC, and DPI treatments. Even after 24 h of LED irradiation, the activity of FAK and ERK appeared in cells treated with red LED light but did not appear in cells treated with green and blue LED lights. Furthermore, the activity of caspase-3 was confirmed along with cell detachment. Therefore, our results suggest that red LED light induced mitogenic effects via low levels of ROS-FAK-ERK, while green and blue LED lights induced cytotoxic effects via cellular stress and apoptosis signaling resulting from high levels of ROS.

The Effect of Genetically Modified Lactobacillus plantarum Carrying Bone Morphogenetic Protein 2 Gene on an Ovariectomized Rat.

OBJECTIVE: Osteoporosis result from age-related decline in the number of osteoblast progenitors in the bone marrow. Probiotics have beneficial effects on the host, when administered in appropriate amounts. This study investigated the effects of probiotics expressing specific genes, especially the effects of genetically modified bone morphogenetic protein (BMP)-2-expressing Lactobacillus plantarum CJNU 3003 (LP) on ovariectomized rats. METHODS: Twenty-eight female Wistar rats (250-300 g, 12 weeks old) were divided into four groups : the sham (control), the ovariectomy (OVX)-induced osteoporosis group (OVX), the OVX and LP (OVX/LP), OVX and genetically modified BMP-2-expressing LP (OVX/LP with BMP) groups. The three groups underwent bilateral OVX and two of these groups were administered two different types of LP via oral gavage daily. At 16 weeks post-OVX, blood was collected from the heart and the bilateral tibiae were extracted and were scanned by ex-vivo micro-computed tomography and stained with hematoxylin-and-eosin (H&E) and Masson's trichrome stain for pathological assessment. The serum levels of osteocalcin (OC), rat C-telopeptide of type I collagen (CTX-I), BMP-2, and receptor activator of nuclear factor-ĸB ligand (RANKL) were measured. RESULTS: The 3D-micro-computed tomography images showed that the trabecular structure in the OVX/LP with BMP group was maintained compared with OVX and OVX/LP groups. No significant differences were detected in trabecular thickness (Tb.Th) between control and OVX/LP with BMP groups (p>0.05). Furthermore, a tendency toward increased BMD, trabecular bone volume, Tb.Th, and trabecular number and decreased trabecular separation was found in rats in the OVX/LP with BMP groups when compared with the OVX and OVX/LP groups (p>0.05). The H&E and Masson's trichrome stained sections showed a thicker trabecular bone in the OVX/LP with BMP group compared with the OVX and OVX/LP groups. There was no difference in serum levels of OC, CTX and RANKL control and OVX/LP with BMP groups (p>0.05). In contrast, significant differences were found in OC and CTX-1 levels between the OVX and OVX/LP with BMP groups (p<0.05). CONCLUSION: Our results showed that the expression of genetically modified BMP-2 showed inhibition effect for bone loss in a rat model of osteoporosis.

FAK Activation Promotes SMC Dedifferentiation via Increased DNA Methylation in Contractile Genes.

RATIONALE: Vascular smooth muscle cells (SMCs) exhibit remarkable plasticity and can undergo dedifferentiation upon pathological stimuli associated with disease and interventions. OBJECTIVE: Although epigenetic changes are critical in SMC phenotype switching, a fundamental regulator that governs the epigenetic machineries regulating the fate of SMC phenotype has not been elucidated. METHODS AND RESULTS: Using SMCs, mouse models, and human atherosclerosis specimens, we found that FAK (focal adhesion kinase) activation elicits SMC dedifferentiation by stabilizing DNMT3A (DNA methyltransferase 3A). FAK in SMCs is activated in the cytoplasm upon serum stimulation in vitro or vessel injury and active FAK prevents DNMT3A from nuclear FAK-mediated degradation. However, pharmacological or genetic FAK catalytic inhibition forced FAK nuclear localization, which reduced DNMT3A protein via enhanced ubiquitination and proteasomal degradation. Reduced DNMT3A protein led to DNA hypomethylation in contractile gene promoters, which increased SMC contractile protein expression. RNA-sequencing identified SMC contractile genes as a foremost upregulated group by FAK inhibition from injured femoral artery samples compared with vehicle group. DNMT3A knockdown in injured arteries reduced DNA methylation and enhanced contractile gene expression supports the notion that nuclear FAK-mediated DNMT3A degradation via E3 ligase TRAF6 (TNF [tumor necrosis factor] receptor-associated factor 6) drives differentiation of SMCs. Furthermore, we observed that SMCs of human atherosclerotic lesions exhibited decreased nuclear FAK, which was associated with increased DNMT3A levels and decreased contractile gene expression. CONCLUSIONS: This study reveals that nuclear FAK induced by FAK catalytic inhibition specifically suppresses DNMT3A expression in injured vessels resulting in maintaining SMC differentiation by promoting the contractile gene expression. Thus, FAK inhibitors may provide a new treatment option to block SMC phenotypic switching during vascular remodeling and atherosclerosis.

Genomic investigation of the coronavirus disease-2019 outbreak in the Republic of Korea.

The South Korean government effectively contained the coronavirus disease-2019 (COVID-19) outbreak primarily associated with a religious group. We conducted SARS-CoV-2 whole genome sequencing of 66 cases to investigate connections among the initial South Korean cases and the religious group outbreak. We assessed the accuracy of genomic investigation by comparing the whole genome sequences with comprehensive contact tracing records. Five transmission clusters were estimated among the 15 initial cases. The six close-contact cases and two potential exposure pairs identified by contact tracing showed two or fewer nucleotide base differences. Additionally, we identified two transmission clusters that were phylogenetically distinct from the initial clusters, sharing common G11083T, G26144T, and C14805T markers. The strain closest to the two additional clusters was identified from a pair of identical sequences isolated from individuals who traveled from Wuhan to Italy. Our findings provide insights into the origins of community spread of COVID-19.

Genome-Wide Identification and Characterization of Point Mutations in the SARS-CoV-2 Genome.

OBJECTIVES: Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) emerged in Wuhan, China, in December 2019 and has been rapidly spreading worldwide. Although the causal relationship among mutations and the features of SARS-CoV-2 such as rapid transmission, pathogenicity, and tropism, remains unclear, our results of genomic mutations in SARS-CoV-2 may help to interpret the interaction between genomic characterization in SARS-CoV-2 and infectivity with the host. METHODS: A total of 4,254 genomic sequences of SARS-CoV-2 were collected from the Global Initiative on Sharing all Influenza Data (GISAID). Multiple sequence alignment for phylogenetic analysis and comparative genomic approach for mutation analysis were conducted using Molecular Evolutionary Genetics Analysis (MEGA), and an in-house program based on Perl language, respectively. RESULTS: Phylogenetic analysis of SARS-CoV-2 strains indicated that there were 3 major clades including S, V, and G, and 2 subclades (G.1 and G.2). There were 767 types of synonymous and 1,352 types of non-synonymous mutation. ORF1a, ORF1b, S, and N genes were detected at high frequency, whereas ORF7b and E genes exhibited low frequency. In the receptor-binding domain (RBD) of the S gene, 11 non-synonymous mutations were observed in the region adjacent to the angiotensin converting enzyme 2 (ACE2) binding site. CONCLUSION: It has been reported that the rapid infectivity and transmission of SARS-CoV-2 associated with host receptor affinity are derived from several mutations in its genes. Without these genetic mutations to enhance evolutionary adaptation, species recognition, host receptor affinity, and pathogenicity, it would not survive. It is expected that our results could provide an important clue in understanding the genomic characteristics of SARS-CoV-2.

A Quantitative Method to Measure Low Levels of ROS in Nonphagocytic Cells by Using a Chemiluminescent Imaging System.

Chemiluminescence (CL) is one of the most useful methods for detecting reactive oxygen species (ROS). Although fluorescence dyes or genetically encoded biosensors have been developed, CL is still used due to its high sensitivity, ease of use, and low cost. While initially established and used to measure high levels of ROS in phagocytic cells, CL assays are not ideal for measuring low levels of ROS. Here, we developed a newly modified CL assay using a chemiluminescent imaging system for measuring low concentrations of ROS in nonphagocytic cells. We found that dissolving luminol in NaOH, rather than DMSO, increased the H2O2-induced CL signal and that the addition of 4-iodophenylboronic acid (4IPBA) further increased CL intensity. Our new system also increased the rate and intensity of the CL signal in phorbol 12-myristate 13-acetate- (PMA-) treated HT-29 colon cancer cells compared to those in luminol only. We were able to quantify ROS levels from both cells and media in parallel using an H2O2 standard. A significant benefit to our system is that we can easily measure stimulus-induced ROS formation in a real-time manner and also investigate intracellular signaling pathways from a single sample simultaneously. We found that PMA induced tyrosine phosphorylation of protein tyrosine kinases (PTKs), such as focal adhesion kinase (FAK), protein tyrosine kinase 2 (Pyk2), and Src, and increased actin stress fiber formation in a ROS-dependent manner. Interestingly, treatment with either N-acetyl-L-cysteine (NAC) or diphenyleneiodonium (DPI) reduced the PMA-stimulated phosphorylation of these PTKs, implicating a potential role in cellular ROS signaling. Thus, our newly optimized CL assay using 4IPBA and a chemiluminescent imaging method provides a simple, real-time, and low-cost method for the quantification of low levels of ROS.

Nuclear Focal Adhesion Kinase Controls Vascular Smooth Muscle Cell Proliferation and Neointimal Hyperplasia Through GATA4-Mediated Cyclin D1 Transcription.

RATIONALE: Neointimal hyperplasia is characterized by excessive accumulation of vascular smooth muscle cells (SMCs) leading to occlusive disorders, such as atherosclerosis and stenosis. Blood vessel injury increases growth factor secretion and matrix synthesis, which promotes SMC proliferation and neointimal hyperplasia via FAK (focal adhesion kinase). OBJECTIVE: To understand the mechanism of FAK action in SMC proliferation and neointimal hyperplasia. METHODS AND RESULTS: Using combined pharmacological FAK catalytic inhibition (VS-4718) and SMC-specific FAK kinase-dead (Myh11-Cre-ERT2) mouse models, we report that FAK regulates SMC proliferation and neointimal hyperplasia in part by governing GATA4- (GATA-binding protein 4) cyclin D1 signaling. Inhibition of FAK catalytic activity facilitates FAK nuclear localization, which is required for proteasome-mediated GATA4 degradation in the cytoplasm. Chromatin immunoprecipitation identified GATA4 binding to the mouse cyclin D1 promoter, and loss of GATA4-mediated cyclin D1 transcription diminished SMC proliferation. Stimulation with platelet-derived growth factor or serum activated FAK and redistributed FAK from the nucleus to cytoplasm, leading to concomitant increase in GATA4 protein and cyclin D1 expression. In a femoral artery wire injury model, increased neointimal hyperplasia was observed in parallel with elevated FAK activity, GATA4 and cyclin D1 expression following injury in control mice, but not in VS-4718-treated and SMC-specific FAK kinase-dead mice. Finally, lentiviral shGATA4 knockdown in the wire injury significantly reduced cyclin D1 expression, SMC proliferation, and neointimal hyperplasia compared with control mice. CONCLUSIONS: Nuclear enrichment of FAK by inhibition of FAK catalytic activity during vessel injury blocks SMC proliferation and neointimal hyperplasia through regulation of GATA4-mediated cyclin D1 transcription.

Genetic Characterization of Middle East Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus, South Korea, 2018.

We evaluated genetic variation in Middle East respiratory syndrome coronavirus (MERS-CoV) imported to South Korea in 2018 using specimens from a patient and isolates from infected Caco-2 cells. The MERS-CoV strain in this study was genetically similar to a strain isolated in Riyadh, Saudi Arabia, in 2017.

FAK inhibition reduces metastasis of α4 integrin-expressing melanoma to lymph nodes by targeting lymphatic VCAM-1 expression.

Malignant melanoma typically metastasizes to lymph nodes (LNs) as a primary or in-transit lesion before secondary metastasis occurs, and LN biopsy is a common procedure to diagnose melanoma progression. Since cancer metastasis is a complex process where various interactions between tumor cells and the stroma play key roles in establishing metastatic lesions, the exact mechanisms underlying melanoma metastasis to LNs remains unknown. It has been known that focal adhesion kinase (FAK) activity promotes the expression of proinflammatory vascular cell adhesion molecule-1 (VCAM-1). As VCAM-1 is a major receptor for α4 integrin and plays a key role in leukocyte recruitment, we reasoned that inhibition of FAK activity may reduce VCAM-1 expression within LNs and thus reduce metastasis of α4 integrin-expressing melanoma to LNs. First, we found that a pharmacological FAK inhibitor, PF-271, blocked tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α)-mediated VCAM-1 expression on human dermal lymphatic endothelial cells (HDLECs). In vitro, PF-271 significantly decreased B16F10 melanoma adhesion to and transmigration through HDLECs compared to TNF-α treated cells. Furthermore, in vivo FAK inhibition by oral PF-271 administration reduced VCAM-1 expression in inguinal, cervical, and popliteal LNs compared to vehicle treated mice. Finally, in a footpad metastasis model, B16F10 melanoma cells were injected into the right footpad of C57BL/6 mice, and PF-271 (50 mg/kg, twice daily for 6 days) was orally administrated after 1 week of tumor transplantation. While untreated mice exhibited significant metastatic melanoma lesions in popliteal LNs, PF-271 treated mice showed only marginal melanoma metastasis. These results support the possibility that FAK inhibitors may be a novel preventative option in melanoma metastasis by blocking VCAM-1 expression in LNs.

Distinct molecular evolution of influenza H3N2 strains in the 2016/17 season and its implications for vaccine effectiveness.

Influenza virus is a respiratory pathogen that causes seasonal epidemics by resulting in a considerable number of influenza-like illness (ILI) patients. During the 2016/17 season, ILI rates increased unusually earlier and higher than previous seasons in Korea, and most viral isolates were subtyped as H3N2 strains. Notably, the hemagglutinin (HA) of most Korean H3N2 strains retained newly introduced lysine signatures in HA antigenic sites A and D, compared with that of clade 3C.2a vaccine virus, which affected antigenic distances to the standard vaccine antisera in a hemagglutination inhibition assay. The neuraminidase (NA) of Korean H3N2 strains also harbored amino acid mutations. However, neither consistent amino acid mutations nor common phylogenetic clustering patterns were observed. These suggest that Korean H3N2 strains of the 2016/17 season might be distantly related with the vaccine virus both in genotypic and phenotypic classifications, which would adversely affect vaccine effectiveness.

The new stimulant designer compound pentedrone exhibits rewarding properties and affects dopaminergic activity.

Cathinone derivatives are new recreational drugs known to produce psychostimulant effects. However, unlike other psychostimulants, the addictive potential of cathinone derivatives has not been widely studied. Here, we investigated the effects of pentedrone, a type of cathinone derivative, on the dopaminergic system using reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction and Western blot. We also evaluated the addictive potential of pentedrone using conditioned place preference and self-administration. We found that pentedrone increased the mRNA expression of dopamine 1 receptor, dopamine 2 receptor and dopamine transporter, as well as induced phosphorylation of cAMP response element-binding protein in PC-12 cells. Additionally, pentedrone at 3 and 10 mg/kg significantly increased conditioned place preference in mice, while pentedrone at 0.3 mg/kg/infusion significantly increased self-administration in rats. Finally, we found that acute administration of pentedrone enhanced locomotor activity in a dose-dependent manner. Collectively, these data suggest that the addictive properties of pentedrone may be due to its effects on the dopaminergic system.

Occurrence and characterization of oseltamivir-resistant influenza virus in children between 2007-2008 and 2008-2009 seasons.

PURPOSE: There was a global increase in the prevalence of oseltamivir-resistant influenza viruses during the 2007-2008 influenza season. This study was conducted to investigate the occurrence and characteristics of oseltamivir-resistant influenza viruses during the 2007-2008 and 2008-2009 influenza seasons among patients who were treated with oseltamivir (group A) and those that did not receive oseltamivir (group B). METHODS: A prospective study was conducted on 321 pediatric patients who were hospitalized because of influenza during the 2007-2008 and 2008-2009 influenza seasons. Drug resistance tests were conducted on influenza viruses isolated from 91 patients. RESULTS: There was no significant difference between the clinical characteristics of groups A and B during both seasons. Influenza A/H1N1, isolated from both groups A and B during the 2007-2008 and 2008-2009 periods, was not resistant to zanamivir. However, phenotypic analysis of the virus revealed a high oseltamivir IC50 range and that H275Y substitution of the neuraminidase (NA) gene and partial variation of the hemagglutinin (HA) gene did not affect its antigenicity to the HA vaccine even though group A had a shorter hospitalization duration and fewer lower respiratory tract complications than group B. In addition, there was no significant difference in the clinical manifestations between oseltamivir-susceptible and oseltamivir-resistant strains of influenza A/H1N1. CONCLUSION: Establishment of guidelines to efficiently treat influenza with oseltamivir, a commonly used drug for treating influenza in Korean pediatric patients, and a treatment strategy with a new therapeutic agent is required.

Involvement of small GTPase RhoA in the regulation of superoxide production in BV2 cells in response to fibrillar Aß peptides.

Fibrillar amyloid-beta (fAß) peptide causes neuronal cell death, which is known as Alzheimer's disease. One of the mechanisms for neuronal cell death is the activation of microglia which releases toxic compounds like reactive oxygen species (ROS) in response to fAß. We observed that fAß rather than soluble form blocked BV2 cell proliferation of microglial cell line BV2, while N-acetyl-l-cysteine (NAC), a scavenger of superoxide, prevented the cells from death, suggesting that cell death is induced by ROS. Indeed, both fAß1-42 and fAß25-35 induced superoxide production in BV2 cells. fAß25-35 produced superoxide, although fAß25-35 is not phagocytosed into BV2 cells. Thus, superoxide production by fAß does not seem to be dependent on phagocytosis of fAß. Herein we studied how fAß produces superoxide in BV2. Transfection of dominant negative (DN) RhoA (N19) cDNA plasmid, small hairpin (sh)-RhoA forming plasmid, and Y27632, an inhibitor of Rho-kinase, abrogated the superoxide formation in BV2 cells stimulated by fAß. Furthermore, fAß elevated GTP-RhoA level as well as Rac1 and Cdc42. Tat-C3 toxin, sh-RhoA, and Y27632 inhibited the phosphorylation of p47(PHOX). Moreover, peritoneal macrophages from p47(PHOX) (-/-) knockout mouse could not produce superoxide in response to fAß. These results suggest that RhoA closely engages in the regulation of superoxide production induced by fAß through phosphorylation of p47(PHOX) in microglial BV2 cells.

Decreased tissue and serum expression of galectin-7 in patients with hypertrophic scars.

Hypertrophic scars (HS) result from an imbalance between collagen biosynthesis and matrix degradation during wound healing. In this study a proteomics approach was used to compare the protein profiles of skin tissue obtained from patients with HS and healthy controls. One of the epidermal proteins, galectin-7 was markedly down-regulated in HS. Serum levels of galectin-7 in 27 patients with HS were less than 1/3 of those in 15 healthy controls. Tissue protein expression was subsequently evaluated using immunohistochemical staining on HS tissue and on serially-obtained control tissue during wound healing. Weaker galectin-7 immunoreactivity was detected along the cytoplasmic membrane of basal and suprabasal cells in samples from HS. In addition, galectin-7 was stained in the extracellular space of the upper papillary dermis in HS tissue. Ablative laser treatment, used to induce wound healing of healthy control tissue, demonstrated marked galectin-7 expression at the cytoplasmic membrane on days 3, 5, 14 and 21. Pronounced galectin-7 staining at the upper papillary dermis was detected on days 1, 3 and 10. These results suggest that the differences in galectin-7 expression and subcellular and extracellular distribution may be crucially involved in the pathogenic process of HS.

Impact of influenza virus escape-mutations on influenza detection by the rapid influenza diagnostic test.

During the influenza pandemic of 2009-2010, rapid influenza diagnostic tests (RIDTs) were used to detect influenza viral infections because they are quick and simple to use. However, retrospective studies showed that RIDTs performed poorly when used to diagnose pandemic viral infections. Determining how amino acid sequence changes in pandemic or epidemic influenza viral antigens impact clinical value of RIDTs has not been possible, because the viral epitopes recognized by RIDTs have been not mapped. In this study, the effect of escape-variations or mutations in influenza viral antigens upon the sensitivity and specificity of an RIDT was investigated by characterizing the immunological properties of the antibodies used in the RIDT. Escape-mutants were generated by cultivating A/Korea/01/2009 in the presence of an excess of the same antibodies used in the RIDT. Escape-mutants not recognized by the RIDT were selected. Epitopes recognized by the RIDT were mapped by comparing the sequence and immunological analysis of the escape-variants and wild-type isolates. The RIDT antibodies recognized epitopes on the Sa antigenic site and in the F subdomain in hemagglutinin. Variants bearing mutations in these epitopes were not detected by the RIDT. The frequency of escape-variants emerging since the 2009-2010 pandemic was calculated as 1.27% using in silico surveillance of influenza sequence databases. These results suggest that mapping the relevant epitopes of RIDTs and making such information available to clinics would be helpful for determining whether RIDTs match newly emergent strains and subtypes prior to retrospective re-evaluation of the RIDTs using clinical specimens.

Neuregulin induces CTGF expression in hypertrophic scarring fibroblasts.

Hypertrophic scarring (HTS) is a common fibroproliferative disorder that typically follows thermal and other injuries involving the deep dermis. These pathogenic mechanisms are regulated by connective tissue growth factor (CTGF) and transforming growth factor-ß. We found that neuregulin-1 (NRG1), as well as NRG receptors, HER-2, and HER-3 were upregulated in HTS fibroblasts (HTSF), compared with normal fibroblasts. Furthermore, NRG1 stimulation increased the expression of CTGF in HTSF. In the presence of inhibitors of PI3K, Src, Smad, or reactive oxygen species, the effect of NRG1 on CTGF expression decreased significantly. In particular, the combination of LY294002 or PP2 with SB431542 blocked NRG1-mediated CTGF expression in HTSF. Finally, we demonstrated that siRNA for CTGF, AG825, LY294002, and PP2, either alone or in co-treatment, effectively reduced extracellular matrix expression. Taken together, our results suggest that NRG1 is involved in fibrotic scar pathogenesis via PI3K- or Src-mediated CTGF expression.