Telemedicine Utilization Patterns and Implications Amidst COVID-19 Outbreaks in Thailand Under Public Universal Coverage Scheme.

During COVID-19 pandemic, telemedicine was a strategy to facilitate healthcare service delivery minimizing the risk of direct exposure among people. In Thailand, the National Health Security Office has included telemedicine services under the Universal Coverage Scheme to support social distancing policies to reduce the spread of COVID-19. This study aimed to determine the patterns of telemedicine service use during major COVID-19 outbreaks including Alpha, Delta, and Omicron in Thailand. We retrospectively analyzed a dataset of telemedicine e-claims from the National Health Security Office, which covers services reimbursed under the Universal Coverage Scheme between December 2020 and August 2022. An interrupted time-series analysis, Pearson correlation analysis and binary logistic regression were performed. Almost 70% of the patients using telemedicine services were over 40 years old. Most patients used services for mental health problems (25.6%) and major noncommunicable diseases, including essential hypertension (12.6%) and diabetes mellitus (9.2%). The daily number of using telemedicine service was strongly correlated with the number of COVID-19 new cases detected. An immediate change in the trend of using telemedicine was detected at the onset of outbreaks along with the surge of infection. The follow-up use of telemedicine services was not substantial among female, older adults patients and those with non-communicable diseases except mental health problems, and infectious diseases. Strategies need to be developed to reinforced healthcare resources for telemedicine during the surge of outbreaks and sustain the use of telemedicine services for chronic and infectious diseases, regardless of the pandemic, and promote the efficiency of healthcare systems.

Topic identification, selection, and prioritization for health technology assessment in selected countries: a mixed study design.

BACKGROUND: There is limited evidence-informed guidance on TISP processes for countries where health technology assessment (HTA) is in a nascent phase. We aimed to explore the range of topic identification, selection and prioritization (TISP) processes and practices for HTA in selected countries and identify aspects relevant to emerging HTA systems. METHODS: This mixed design study included a systematic literature review, an electronic survey, and individual interviews. We conducted a systematic literature review with criteria that were developed a priori to identify countries deemed to have a recently formalized HTA system. Based on the literature review, a twenty-three item online survey was shared with the identified countries, we completed follow-up interviews with ten participants who have experience with HTA. We analyzed documents, survey responses and interview transcripts thematically to identify lessons related to TISP processes and practices. RESULTS: The literature review identified 29 nine candidate countries as having a "potential" recently formalized HTA system. Twenty-one survey responses were analyzed and supplemented with ten individual interviews. We found variation in countries' approaches to TISP - particularly between pharmaceutical and non-pharmaceutical interventions. Results indicate that TISP is heavily driven by policy makers, expert involvement, and to a lesser extent, relevant stakeholders. The use of horizon-scanning and early warning systems is uncommon. Interviewee participants provided further insight to the survey data, reporting that political awareness and an institutional framework were important to support TISP. TISP can be optimized by stronger national regulations and legislative structures, in addition to education and advocacy about HTA among politicians and decision-makers. In some settings regional networks have been useful, particularly in the development of TISP guidelines and methodologies. Additionally, the technical capacity to conduct TISP, and access to relevant local data were factors limiting TISP in national settings. Increased network collaboration and capacity building were reported as future needs. CONCLUSIONS: This study provides current insights into a topic where there is limited published peer reviewed literature. TISP is an important first step of HTA, and topics should be selected and prioritized based on local need and relevance. The limited capacity for TISP in settings where HTA is emerging may be supported by local and international collaboration to increase capacity and knowledge. To succeed, both TISP and HTA need to be embedded within national health care priority setting and decision-making. More in-depth understanding of where countries are situtated in formalizing the TISP process may help others to overcome factors that facilitate or hinder progress.

Recommendations for Emerging Good Practice and Future Research in Relation to Family and Caregiver Health Spillovers in Health Economic Evaluations: A Report of the SHEER Task Force.

BACKGROUND: Omission of family and caregiver health spillovers from the economic evaluation of healthcare interventions remains common practice. When reported, a high degree of methodological inconsistency in incorporating spillovers has been observed. AIM: To promote emerging good practice, this paper from the Spillovers in Health Economic Evaluation and Research (SHEER) task force aims to provide guidance on the incorporation of family and caregiver health spillovers in cost-effectiveness and cost-utility analysis. SHEER also seeks to inform the basis for a spillover research agenda and future practice. METHODS: A modified nominal group technique was used to reach consensus on a set of recommendations, representative of the views of participating subject-matter experts. Through the structured discussions of the group, as well as on the basis of evidence identified during a review process, recommendations were proposed and voted upon, with voting being held over two rounds. RESULTS: This report describes 11 consensus recommendations for emerging good practice. SHEER advocates for the incorporation of health spillovers into analyses conducted from a healthcare/health payer perspective, and more generally inclusive perspectives such as a societal perspective. Where possible, spillovers related to displaced/foregone activities should be considered, as should the distributional consequences of inclusion. Time horizons ought to be sufficient to capture all relevant impacts. Currently, the collection of primary spillover data is preferred and clear justification should be provided when using secondary data. Transparency and consistency when reporting on the incorporation of health spillovers are crucial. In addition, given that the evidence base relating to health spillovers remains limited and requires much development, 12 avenues for future research are proposed. CONCLUSIONS: Consideration of health spillovers in economic evaluations has been called for by researchers and policymakers alike. Accordingly, it is hoped that the consensus recommendations of SHEER will motivate more widespread incorporation of health spillovers into analyses. The developing nature of spillover research necessitates that this guidance be viewed as an initial roadmap, rather than a strict checklist. Moreover, there is a need for balance between consistency in approach, where valuable in a decision making context, and variation in application, to reflect differing decision maker perspectives and to support innovation.

Cost-effectiveness of alginic acid in combination with proton pump inhibitor for the treatment of gastroesophageal reflux disease in systemic sclerosis patients.

BACKGROUND: Systemic sclerosis (SSc) patients often become refractory to proton pump inhibitors (PPI)-a standard treatment for gastroesophageal reflux disease (GERD)-and intolerant to PPI in combination with domperidone. PPI with alginic acid is an alternative treatment option, but alginic acid is costly. OBJECTIVES: We compared the costs and effectiveness of alginic acid plus PPI versus standard treatments (PPI with/without antacids as needed and lifestyle modifications) for GERD in SSc patients unsuitable for, or intolerant to, domperidone. METHODS: An economic evaluation using the Markov model was conducted among SSc patients aged between 40 and 65 years with GERD, having a partial or non-response to 4 weeks of standard-dose omeprazole (40 mg/day) and being unsuitable for or intolerant to domperidone. Using a societal perspective, we computed the incremental cost-effectiveness ratios (ICERs) in terms of Thai baht (THB) per quality-adjusted life-year (QALY) between a combination of alginic acid plus PPI and standard treatment for GERD. The lifetime time horizon was used. RESULTS: The ICER for alginic acid plus PPI versus standard treatments was 377 101 THB/QALY. According to the one-way sensitivity analysis, the cost of alginic acid was the most impactful parameter. If the market prices of alginic acid plus PPI were reduced by 61%, this treatment option would become cost-effective at the willingness-to-pay threshold of 160 000 THB/QALY (34.68 THB/USD data on 25 May 2023). Furthermore, if alginic acid were included in the public health insurance program, the national budget would be increased by 66 313 THB per patient, resulting in an overall budget increase of 5 106 101 to 8 885 942 THB compared with the standard treatment. CONCLUSIONS: Alginic acid plus PPI does not represent good value for money compared with the standard treatment among such SSc patients in Thailand unless its price is reduced significantly.

Which interventions for alcohol use should be included in a universal healthcare benefit package? An umbrella review of targeted interventions to address harmful drinking and dependence.

BACKGROUND: This study aimed to identify targeted interventions for the prevention and treatment of harmful alcohol use. Umbrella review methodology was used to summarise the effectiveness across a broad range of interventions, in order to identify which interventions should be considered for inclusion within universal health coverage schemes in low- and middle-income countries. METHODS AND FINDINGS: We included systematic reviews with meta-analysis of randomised controlled trials (RCTs) on targeted interventions addressing alcohol use in harmful drinkers or individuals with alcohol use disorder. We only included outcomes related to alcohol consumption, heavy drinking, binge drinking, abstinence, or alcohol-attributable accident, injury, morbidity or mortality. PubMed, Embase, PsycINFO, Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews, and the International HTA Database were searched from inception to 3 September 2021. Risk of bias of reviews was assessed using the AMSTAR2 tool. After reviewing the abstracts of 9,167 articles, results were summarised narratively and certainty in the body of evidence for each intervention was assessed using GRADE. In total, 86 studies met the inclusion criteria, of which the majority reported outcomes for brief intervention (30 studies) or pharmacological interventions (29 studies). Overall, methodological quality of included studies was low. CONCLUSIONS: For harmful drinking, brief interventions, cognitive behavioural therapy, and motivational interviewing showed a small effect, whereas mentoring in adolescents and children may have a significant long-term effect. For alcohol use disorder, social network approaches and acamprosate showed evidence of a significant and durable effect. More evidence is required on the effectiveness of gamma-hydroxybutyric acid (GHB), nalmefene, and quetiapine, as well as optimal combinations of pharmacological and psychosocial interventions. As an umbrella review, we were unable to identify the extent to which variation between studies stemmed from differences in intervention delivery or variation between country contexts. Further research is required on applicability of findings across settings and best practice for implementation. Funded by the Thai Health Promotion Foundation, grant number 61-00-1812.

Fifteen Lessons from Fifteen Years of the Health Intervention and Technology Assessment Program in Thailand.

The Health Intervention and Technology Assessment Program (HITAP) was established in 2007. This article highlights 15 lessons from over 15 years of experience, noting five achievements about what HITAP has done well, five areas that it is currently working on, and five aims for work in the future. HITAP built capacity for HTA and linked research to policy and practice in Thailand. With collaborators from academic and policy spheres, HITAP has mobilized regional and global support, and developed global public goods to enhance the field of HTA. HITAP's semi-autonomous structure has facilitated these changes, though they have not been without their challenges. HITAP aims to continue its work on HTA for public health interventions and disinvestments, effectively engaging with stakeholders and strategically managing its human resources. Moving forward, HITAP will develop and update global public goods on HTA, work on emerging topics such as early HTA, address issues in digital health, real-world evidence and equity, support HTA development globally, particularly in low-income settings, and seek to engage more effectively with the public. HITAP seeks to learn from its experience and invest in the areas identified so that it can grow sustainably. Its journey may be relevant to other countries and institutions that are interested in developing HTA programs.

What are the impacts of increasing cost-effectiveness Threshold? a protocol on an empirical study based on economic evaluations conducted in Thailand.

BACKGROUND: Economic evaluations have been widely used to inform and guide policy-making process in healthcare resources allocation as a part of an evidence package. An intervention is considered cost-effective if an ICER is less than a cost-effectiveness threshold (CET), where a CET represents the acceptable price for a unit of additional health gain which a decision-maker is willing to pay. There has been discussion to increase a CET in many settings such as the United Kingdom and Thailand. To the best of our knowledge, Thailand is the only country that has an explicit CET and has revised their CET, not once but twice. Hence, the situation in Thailand provides a unique opportunity for evaluating the impact of changing CET on healthcare expenditure and manufacturers' behaviours in the real-world setting. Before we decide whether a CET should be increased, information on what happened after the CET was increased in the past could be informative and helpful. OBJECTIVES: This study protocol describes a proposed plan to investigate the impact of increased cost-effectiveness threshold using Thailand as a case study. Specifically, we will examine the impact of increasing CET on the drug prices submitted by pharmaceutical companies to the National List of Essential Medicine (NLEM), the decision to include or exclude medications in the NLEM, and the overall budget impact. MATERIALS AND DESIGNS: Retrospective data analysis of the impact of increased CET on national drug committee decisions in Thailand (an upper middle-income country) will be conducted and included data from various sources such as literature, local organizations (e.g. Thai Food and Drug Administration), and inputs from stakeholder consultation meetings. The outcomes include: (1) drug price submitted by the manufacturers and final drug price included in the NLEM if available; (2) decisions about whether the drug was included in the NLEM for reimbursement; and (3) budget impact. The independent variables include a CET, the variable of interest, which can take values of THB100,000, THB120,000, or THB160,000, and potential confounders such as whether this drug was for a chronic disease, market size, and primary endpoint. We will conduct separate multivariable regression analysis for each outcome specified above. DISCUSSION: Understanding the impact of increasing the CET would be helpful in assisting the decision to use and develop an appropriate threshold for one's own setting. Due to the nature of the study design, the findings will be prone to confounding effect and biases; therefore, the analyses will be adjusted for potential confounders and statistical methods will be explored to minimize biases. Knowledge gained from the study will be conveyed to the public through various disseminations such as reports, policy briefs, academic journals, and presentations.

A model-based study to estimate the health and economic impact of health technology assessment in Thailand.

OBJECTIVES: Health technology assessment (HTA) plays a central role in the coverage and reimbursement decision-making process for public health expenditure in many countries, including Thailand. However, there have been few attempts to quantitatively understand the benefits of using HTA to inform resource allocation decisions. The objective of this research was to simulate the expected net monetary benefit (NMB) from using HTA-based decision criteria compared to a first-come, first-served (FCFS) approach using data from Thailand. METHODS: A previously published simulation model was adapted to the Thai context which aimed to simulate the impact of using different decision-making criteria to adopt or reject health technologies for public reimbursement. Specifically, the simulation model provides a quantitative comparison between an HTA-based funding rule and a counterfactual (FCFS) funding rule to make decisions on which health technologies should be funded. The primary output of the model was the NMB of using HTA-based decision criteria compared to the counterfactual approach. The HTA-based decision rule in the model involved measuring incremental cost-effectiveness ratios against a cost-effectiveness threshold. The counterfactual decision rule was a FCFS (random) selection of health technologies. RESULTS: The HTA-based decision rule was associated with a greater NMB compared to the counterfactual. In the investigated analyses, the NMB ranged from THB24,238 million (USD725 million) to THB759,328 million (USD22,719 million). HTA-based decisions led to fewer costs, superior health outcomes (more quality-adjusted life-years). CONCLUSIONS: The results support the hypothesis that HTA can provide health and economic benefits by improving the efficiency of resource allocation decision making.

Effectiveness of a programable body-worn digital hearing aid for older adults in a developing country: a randomized controlled trial with a cross-over design.

BACKGROUND: Hearing aids are important assistive devices for hearing rehabilitation. However, the cost of commonly available commercial hearing aids is often higher than the average monthly income of individuals in some developing countries. Therefore, there is a great need to locally produce cheaper, but still effective, hearing aids. The Thai-produced P02 hearing aid was designed to meet this requirement. OBJECTIVE: To compare the effectiveness of the P02 hearing aid with two common commercially available digital hearing aids (Clip-II™ and Concerto Basic®). METHODS: A prospective, randomized controlled trial with a cross-over design was conducted from October 2012 to September 2014 in a rural Thai community. There were 73 participants (mean age of 73.7 ± 7.3 years) included in this study with moderate to severe hearing loss who were assessed for hearing aid performance, including probe microphone real-ear measurement, functional gain, speech discrimination, and participant satisfaction with the overall quality of perceived sound and the design of the device. RESULTS: There were no statistically significant differences in functional gain or speech discrimination among the three hearing aids evaluated (p-value > 0.05). Real-ear measurements of the three hearing aids met the target curve in 93% of the participants. The best real-ear measurement of the hearing aid following the target curve was significantly lower than that of Clip-II™ and Concerto Basic® (p-value < 0.05) at high frequency. However, participants rated the overall quality of sound higher for the P02 hearing aid than that of Clip-II™ but lower than that of Concerto Basic® (p-value > 0.05). Participants revealed that the P02 hearing aid provided the highest satisfaction ratings for design and user-friendliness with statistical significance (p-value < 0.05). CONCLUSION: The P02 hearing aid was an effective device for older Thai adults with hearing disabilities. Additionally, its modern design, simplicity of use, and ease of maintenance were attractive to this group of individuals. These benefits support the rehabilitation potential of this hearing aid model and its positive impact on the quality of life of older adults in developing countries. TRIAL REGISTRATION: This study was registered under Clinicaltrial.gov NCT01902914 . Date of registration: July 18, 2013.

Economic evaluation of rotavirus vaccination in children of Bhutan.

BACKGROUND: Diarrhoea remains one of the top ten causes of under-five child morbidity in Bhutan, and rotavirus is a significant cause of child diarrhoeal hospitalisations. This study sought to determine the health outcomes, cost-effectiveness, and budget and human resource implications of introducing rotavirus vaccines in the routine immunisation program to inform Bhutan's decision-making process. METHODS: We used UNIVAC model (version 1.3.41) to evaluate the cost-effectiveness of a rotavirus vaccination programme compared with no vaccination from a government perspective. We also projected the impact of rotavirus vaccination on human resources and budget. Acost-effectiveness threshold was determined to be 0.5 times the gross domestic product (GDP) per capita (equivalent to the United States dollar ($) 1,537) per Disability-Adjusted Life-Year (DALY) averted.One-way deterministic and probabilistic sensitivity analyses, and threshold analyses were performed to capture parameter uncertainties. RESULTS: In Bhutan, a rotavirus vaccination programme over 10 years (2020 to 2029) can avert between 104 and 115 DALYs, at an incremental cost ranging from $322,000 to $1,332,000. The incremental cost-effectiveness ratio (ICER) across four vaccination programmes compared to no vaccination scenario were $9,267, $11,606, $3,201, and $2,803 per DALY averted for ROTARIX, RotaTeq, ROTAVAC, and ROTASIIL, respectively. The net five-year budget impact of introducing a rotavirus vaccination programme ranged from $0.20 to $0.81 million. The rotavirus vaccination programme has a potential to reduce the workload of health care workers such as paediatricians, nurses, dieticians, and pharmacists; however, the programme would require an additional 1.93-2.88 full-time equivalent of health assistants. CONCLUSION: At the current cost-effectiveness threshold, routine rotavirus vaccination in Bhutan is unlikely to be cost-effective with any of the currently available vaccines. However, routine vaccination with ROTASIIL was under the cost-effectiveness threshold of one times the GDP per capita ($3,074). ROTASIIL and ROTAVAC would provide the best value for money in Bhutan.

Identifying effective components for mobile health behaviour change interventions for smoking cessation and service uptake: protocol of a systematic review and planned meta-analysis.

BACKGROUND: Mobile health (mHealth) interventions for smoking cessation have been shown to be associated with an increase in effectiveness. However, interventions using mobile phones to change people's behaviour are often perceived as complex interventions, and the interactions between several components within them may affect the outcome. Therefore, it is important to understand how we can improve the design of mHealth interventions using mobile phones as a medium to deliver services. METHODS: Randomised controlled trials (RCTs) of mHealth interventions to support smoking cessation or uptake of smoking cessation services for smokers will be included in this systematic review. A search will be performed by searching MEDLINE, MEDLINE(R) In-Process & Other Non-Indexed Citations, EMBASE, PsycINFO, Web of Science, and CINAHL. A search for new publications will be conducted 3 months prior to submission for publication as mHealth is an emerging area of research. A random-effects meta-analysis model will be used to summarise the effectiveness of mHealth interventions. The risk ratio will be used for the primary outcome, self-reported or verified smoking abstinence, and any binary outcomes for uptake of smoking cessation services. The standardised mean difference using Hedges' g will be reported for continuous data. Heterogeneity will be assessed using I 2 statistics. Where feasible, meta-regression analysis using random-effects multilevel modelling will be conducted to examine the association of pre-specified characteristics (covariates) at the study level with the effectiveness of interventions. Publication bias will be explored using Egger's test for continuous outcomes and Harbord and Peters tests for dichotomous outcomes. The funnel plot will be used to evaluate the presence of publication bias. The Cochrane Risk of Bias Tool will be used to assess differences in risks of bias. DISCUSSION: The results of this systematic review will provide future research with a foundation for designing and evaluating complex interventions that use mobile phones as a platform to deliver behaviour change techniques. SYSTEMATIC REVIEW REGISTRATION: PROSPERO CRD42016026918 .

Development of a Health Screening Package Under the Universal Health Coverage: The Role of Health Technology Assessment.

This study reports the systematic development of a population-based health screening package for all Thai people under the universal health coverage (UHC). To determine major disease areas and health problems for which health screening could mitigate health burden, a consultation process was conducted in a systematic, participatory, and evidence-based manner that involved 41 stakeholders in a half-day workshop. Twelve diseases/health problems were identified during the discussion. Subsequently, health technology assessments, including systematic review and meta-analysis of health benefits as well as economic evaluations and budget impact analyses of corresponding population-based screening interventions, were completed. The results led to advice against elements of current clinical practice, such as annual chest X-rays and particular blood tests (e.g. kidney function test), and indicated that the introduction of certain new population-based health screening programs, such as for chronic hepatitis B, would provide substantial health and economic benefits to the Thais. The final results were presented to a wide group of stakeholders, including decision-makers at the Ministry of Public Health and the public health insurance schemes, to verify and validate the findings and policy recommendations. The package has been endorsed by the Thai UHC Benefit Package Committee for implementation in fiscal year 2016.

An ex-ante economic evaluation of the Maternal and Child Health Voucher Scheme as a decision-making tool in Myanmar.

Reducing child and maternal mortality in order to meet the health-related Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) 4 and 5 remains a major challenge in Myanmar. Inadequate care during pregnancy and labour plays an important role in the maternal mortality rate in Myanmar. A Maternal and Child Health (MCH) Voucher Scheme comprising a subsidization for pregnant women to receive four antenatal care (ANC), delivery and postnatal care (PNC) free-of-charge was planned to help women overcome financial barriers in addition to raising awareness of ANC and delivery with skilled birth attendants (SBA), which can reduce the rate of maternal and neonatal death. This study is part of an ex-ante evaluation of a feasibility study of the MCH Voucher Scheme. A cost-utility analysis was conducted using a decision tree model to assess the cost per disability-adjusted life years (DALYs) averted from the MCH Voucher Scheme compared with the current situation. Most input parameters were obtained from Myanmar context. From the base-case analysis, where the financial burden on households was fully subsidized, the MCH Voucher Scheme increased utilization for ANC from 73% up to 93% and for delivery from SBAs from 51% up to and 71%, respectively; hence, it is considered to be very cost-effective with an incremental cost-effectiveness ratio of 381 027 kyats per DALY averted (2010, price year). From the probabilistic sensitivity analysis, the MCH Voucher Scheme had a 52% chance of being a cost-effective option at 1 GDP per capita threshold compared to the current situation. Given that the Voucher Scheme is currently being implemented in one township in Myanmar as a result of this study, ongoing evaluation of the effectiveness and cost-effectiveness of this scheme is warranted.

Is diabetes and hypertension screening worthwhile in resource-limited settings? An economic evaluation based on a pilot of a Package of Essential Non-communicable disease interventions in Bhutan.

In response to a lack of cost-effective data on screening and early treatment of diabetes and hypertension in resource-limited settings, a model-based economic evaluation was performed on the World Health Organization (WHO)'s Package of Essential Non-communicable (PEN) disease interventions for primary health care in Bhutan. Both local and international data were applied in the model in order to derive lifetime costs and outcomes resulting from the early treatment of diabetes and hypertension. The results indicate that the current screening option (where people who are overweight, obese or aged 40 years or older who visit primary care facilities are screened for diabetes and hypertension) represents good value for money compared to 'no screening'. The study findings also indicate that expanding opportunistic screening (70% coverage of the target population) to universal screening (where 100% of the target population are screened), is likely to be even more cost-effective. From the sensitivity analysis, the value of the screening options remains the same when disease prevalence varies. Therefore, applying this model to other healthcare settings is warranted, since disease prevalence is one of the major factors in affecting the cost-effectiveness results of screening programs.

Community-Based Hearing Screening of Disabled Elders Using the Thai-FMHT: Clinical Implications and Cost-Effectiveness.

OBJECTIVE: The aim of this study was to evaluate the feasibility of using the two-stage hearing test to detect hearing disabilities in the community elders. MATERIAL AND METHOD: A prospective cohort study was conducted in the Phuwieng District, Khon Kaen, Thailand from December 1, 2012 to January 31, 2013. All of the elders more than 60 years of age were invited. First, screening using the Thai version of five-minute hearing test (Thai-FMHT) with a score equal to or greater than 12 was included in the group and then given the next audiometric examination. RESULTS: Two hundred fifty-eight elders were interested in this program, but only 192 subjects consented to participate in the entire study. Six participants withdrew before completing the protocol; therefore, 107 males and 79 females were included. The age ranged 60-92 years old. Only 152 participants (81.7%; 95% CI: 75.5-86.6%) had a hearing disability that could be rehabilitated using a hearing aid. The cost of hearing screening using this program was reduced from $114.15 to $28.60 per positive case with the need for hearing rehabilitation. CONCLUSION: The two-stage hearing screening using the Thai-FMHT followed by an audiometric examination was found to be a suitable test for community-based mass screening of hearing loss, particularly in an area with limited resources.

The use of economic evaluation for guiding the pharmaceutical reimbursement list in Thailand.

Medicines expenditure consumes a significant proportion of public health expenditure in Thailand, where Universal Health Coverage has been in place since 2002. The National List of Essential Medicines has been successfully used as a pharmaceutical benefits package for all public health plans. All patients are eligible for all medicines included in the list free of charge by law. Health economic evaluation has been employed as a tool for the development of this list, including price negotiation of medicines before inclusion, especially of high-cost medicines or medicines with high budget implications. This paper illustrates the current process, mechanisms, and impact and informs of seven success factors that have contributed to the successful use of health economic evaluation in Thailand. These include strong political commitment, development of individual and institutional capacity, participation of all relevant stakeholders, establishment of standard methodological and process guidelines, consideration of several elements in the decision-making process, using evidence as a starting point rather than a deciding factor, and strong enforcement. The lessons learned from this study are likely to be applicable to other settings committed to evidence-based decision making.

A way forward for the evaluation of health technologies for infectious diseases.

Recently, many researchers undertaking health technology assessment of screening or vaccination programs for infectious diseases have opted for dynamic transmission models for their analysis, rather than the typical static models (Markov and decision tree), as they are better at predicting the indirect effects of interventions, such as those that may affect disease transmission within the interested population or the ecology of the pathogen. Nevertheless, these models have not yet become part of the traditional tool box of health economists, due in part to the fact that the results are complex and difficult to analyze, requiring extensive computational skills. This paper aims to provide an overview of the concept of a dynamic transmission models and outline recommendations on how best to determine whether a dynamic approach is appropriate when evaluating health technologies and interventions for infectious diseases.

The economic evaluation of medical devices: challenges.

While many of the principles that guide the economic evaluation of medical devices are somewhat similar to those that guide the evaluation of other health technologies, most outline a methodology that focuses on pharmaceutical products rather providing specific guidance for medical devices. Given that medical devices use a wide range of technologies and can be used for many purposes, conducting an economic analysis for medical devices is not straightforward. The cost and effectiveness of a given technology may depend on a number of factors. The objective of this paper is to provide a summary of issues that need to be addressed before undertaking an economic evaluation of medical devices and to outline a number of suggested approaches for undertaking an economic evaluation of medical devices.

Evidence-informed policy formulation: the case of the voucher scheme for maternal and child health in Myanmar.

INTRODUCTION: In 2010, with financial support from the Global Alliance for Vaccine and Immunization's Health System Strengthening programme, the Government of Myanmar established a scheme to improve coverage of maternal and child health (MCH) services. Employing qualitative approaches, this article reviews the processes through which this scheme was devised, focusing on evidence generation and the use of such evidence to inform policy formulation. To address the problem of high mortality rates among mothers and infants, collaborative research was conducted by Myanmar's Ministry of Health, the World Health Organization, and a research arm of Thailand's Ministry of Public Health, between March 2010 and September 2011. In the early phase of this study, key barriers to government-provided MCH services were identified. Based on a comprehensive review of the literature, the introduction of a voucher scheme was raised for consideration by ministry of health decision-makers and respective stakeholders. Despite the successful experience of this financing strategy in low-income countries, a series of surveys, an economic evaluation, and focus group discussions were carried out to assess the feasibility and potential health and economic implications of this scheme in the Myanmar context. The research findings were then used to guide the design and adoption of the newly established initiative.

Health related quality of life among patients with tuberculosis and HIV in Thailand.

INTRODUCTION: Health utilities of tuberculosis (TB) patients may be diminished by side effects from medication, prolonged treatment duration, physical effects of the disease itself, and social stigma attached to the disease. METHODS: We collected health utility data from Thai patients who were on TB treatment or had been successfully treated for TB for the purpose of economic modeling. Structured questionnaire and EuroQol (EQ-5D) and EuroQol visual analog scale (EQ-VAS) instruments were used as data collection tools. We compared utility of patients with two co-morbidities calculated using multiplicative model (U(CAL)) with the direct measures and fitted Tobit regression models to examine factors predictive of health utility and to assess difference in health utilities of patients in various medical conditions. RESULTS: Of 222 patients analyzed, 138 (62%) were male; median age at enrollment was 40 years (interquartile range [IQR], 35-47). Median monthly household income was 6,000 Baht (187 US$; IQR, 4,000-15,000 Baht [125-469 US$]). Concordance correlation coefficient between utilities measured using EQ-5D and EQ-VAS (U(EQ-5D) and U(VAS), respectively) was 0.6. U(CAL) for HIV-infected TB patients was statistically different from the measured U(EQ-5D) (p-value<0.01) and U(VAS) (p-value<0.01). In tobit regression analysis, factors independently predictive of U(EQ-5D) included age and monthly household income. Patients aged ≥40 years old rated U(EQ-5D) significantly lower than younger persons. Higher U(EQ-5D) was significantly associated with higher monthly household income in a dose response fashion. The median U(EQ-5D) was highest among patients who had been successfully treated for TB and lowest among multi-drug resistant TB (MDR-TB) patients who were on treatment. CONCLUSIONS: U(CAL) of patients with two co-morbidities overestimated the measured utilities, warranting further research of how best to estimate utilities of patients with such conditions. TB and MDR-TB treatments impacted on patients' self perceived health status. This effect diminished after successful treatment.