Oligodendrocytes produce amyloid-ß and contribute to plaque formation alongside neurons in Alzheimer's disease model mice.

Amyloid-ß (Aß) is thought to be neuronally derived in Alzheimer's disease (AD). However, transcripts of amyloid precursor protein (APP) and amyloidogenic enzymes are equally abundant in oligodendrocytes (OLs). By cell-type-specific deletion of Bace1 in a humanized knock-in AD model, APPNLGF, we demonstrate that OLs and neurons contribute to Aß plaque burden. For rapid plaque seeding, excitatory projection neurons must provide a threshold level of Aß. Ultimately, our findings are relevant for AD prevention and therapeutic strategies.

Plasma amyloid beta X-42/X-40 ratio and cognitive decline in suspected early and preclinical Alzheimer's disease.

INTRODUCTION: Blood-based biomarkers are a cost-effective and minimally invasive method for diagnosing the early and preclinical stages of amyloid positivity (AP). Our study aims to investigate our novel immunoprecipitation-immunoassay (IP-IA) as a test for predicting cognitive decline. METHODS: We measured levels of amyloid beta (Aß)X-40 and AßX-42 in immunoprecipitated eluates from the DELCODE cohort. Receiver-operating characteristic (ROC) curves, regression analyses, and Cox proportional hazard regression models were constructed to predict AP by Aß42/40 classification in cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) and conversion to mild cognitive impairment (MCI) or dementia. RESULTS: We detected a significant correlation between AßX-42/X-40 in plasma and CSF (r = 0.473). Mixed-modeling analysis revealed a substantial prediction of AßX-42/X-40 with an area under the curve (AUC) of 0.81 for AP (sensitivity: 0.79, specificity: 0.74, positive predictive value [PPV]: 0.71, negative predictive value [NPV]: 0.81). In addition, lower AßX-42/X-40 ratios were associated with negative PACC5 slopes, suggesting cognitive decline. DISCUSSION: Our results suggest that assessing the plasma AßX-42/X-40 ratio via our semiautomated IP-IA is a promising biomarker when examining patients with early or preclinical AD. HIGHLIGHTS: New plasma Aß42/Aß40 measurement using immunoprecipitation-immunoassay Plasma Aß42/Aß40 associated with longitudinal cognitive decline Promising biomarker to detect subjective cognitive decline at-risk for brain amyloid positivity.

Amino-terminally elongated Aß peptides are generated by the secreted metalloprotease ADAMTS4 and deposit in a subset of Alzheimer's disease brains.

AIMS: The aggregation and deposition of amyloid-ß (Aß) peptides in the brain is thought to be the initial driver in the pathogenesis of Alzheimer's disease (AD). Aside from full-length Aß peptides starting with an aspartate residue in position 1, both N-terminally truncated and elongated Aß peptides are produced by various proteases from the amyloid precursor protein (APP) and have been detected in brain tissues and body fluids. Recently, we demonstrated that the particularly abundant N-terminally truncated Aß4-x peptides are generated by ADAMTS4, a secreted metalloprotease that is exclusively expressed in the oligodendrocyte cell population. In this study, we investigated whether ADAMTS4 might also be involved in the generation of N-terminally elongated Aß peptides. METHODS: We used cell-free and cell-based assays in combination with matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionisation time-of-flight mass spectrometry (MALDI-TOF) and electrochemiluminescence sandwich immunoassays to identify and quantify N-terminally elongated Aß peptide variants. Antibodies against these Aß variants were characterised by peptide microarrays and employed for the immunohistochemical analyses of human brain samples. RESULTS: In this study, we discovered additional ADAMTS4 cleavage sites in APP. These were located N-terminal to Asp-(1) in the Aß peptide sequence between residues Glu-(-7) and Ile-(-6) as well as Glu-(-4) and Val-(-3), resulting in the release of N-terminally elongated Aß-6-x and Aß-3-x peptides, of which the latter serve as a component in a promising Aß-based plasma biomarker. Aß-6/-3-40 peptides were detected in supernatants of various cell lines and in the cerebrospinal fluid (CSF), and ADAMTS4 enzyme activity promoted the release of Aß-6/-3-x peptides. Furthermore, by immunohistochemistry, a subset of AD cases displayed evidence of extracellular and vascular localization of N-terminally elongated Aß-6/-3-x peptides. DISCUSSION: The current findings implicate ADAMTS4 in both the pathological process of Aß peptide aggregation and in the early detection of amyloid pathology in AD.

Automated Capillary Electrophoresis Immunoblot for the Detection of Alpha-Synuclein in Mouse Tissue.

Background: Alpha-synuclein (aSyn) is a key player in neurodegenerative diseases such as Parkinson's disease (PD), dementia with Lewy bodies, or multiple system atrophy. aSyn is expressed throughout the brain, and can also be detected in various peripheral tissues. In fact, initial symptoms of PD are non-motoric and include autonomic dysfunction, suggesting that the periphery might play an important role in early development of the disease. aSyn is expressed at relatively low levels in non-central tissues, which brings challenges for its detection and quantification in different tissues. Objective: Our goal was to assess the sensitivity of aSyn detection in central and peripheral mouse tissues through capillary electrophoresis (CE) immunoblot, considering the traditional SDS-PAGE immunoblot as the current standard. Methods: Tissues from central and non-central origin from wild type mice were extracted, and included midbrain, inner ear, and esophagus/stomach. aSyn detection was assessed through immunoblotting using Simple Western size-based CE and SDS-PAGE. Results: CE immunoblots show a consistent detection of aSyn in central and peripheral tissues. Through SDS-PAGE, immunoblots revealed a reliable signal corresponding to aSyn, particularly following membrane fixation. Conclusion: Our results suggest a reliable detection of aSyn in central and peripheral tissues using the CE Simple Western immunoblot system. These observations can serve as preliminary datasets when aiming to formally compare CE with SDS-PAGE, as well as for further characterization of aSyn using this technique.

Assessment of immunoprecipitation with subsequent immunoassays for the blood-based diagnosis of Alzheimer's disease.

The Aß42/40 ratio and the concentration of phosphorylated Tau181 in blood plasma represent attractive biomarkers for Alzheimer's disease. As a means for reducing potential matrix effects, which may interfere with plasma immunoassays, we have previously developed a pre-analytical sample workup by semi-automated immunoprecipitation. Here we test the compatibility of pre-analytical immunoprecipitations with automated Aß1-40, Aß1-42 and phosphorylated Tau181 immunoassays on the Lumipulse platform and compare the diagnostic performance of the respective immunoprecipitation immunoassay approaches with direct plasma measurements. 71 participants were dichotomized according to their Aß42/40 ratios in cerebrospinal fluid into the diagnostic groups amyloid-positive (n = 32) and amyloid-negative (n = 39). The plasma Aß1-42/1-40 ratio and phosphorylated Tau181 levels were determined on the Lumipulse G600II platform (Fujirebio) by direct measurements in EDTA-plasma or after Aß- or Tau-immunoprecipitation, respectively. Pre-analytical immunoprecipitation of Aß turned out to be compatible with the Lumipulse Aß assays and resulted in a numerical, yet statistically not significant increase in the area under the ROC curve for plasma Aß1-42/1-40. Additionally, we observed a significant increase in the standardised effect size (Cohen's D). Pre-analytical immunoprecipitation of Tau resulted in increased differences between the diagnostic groups in terms of median and mean phosphorylated Tau 181 levels. Furthermore, we observed a greater Cohen's d (p < 0.001) and a larger area under the ROC curve (p = 0.038) after Tau-IP. Our preliminary findings in a small, preselected sample indicate that pre-analytical immunoprecipitation may have the potential to improve the diagnostic performance of plasma biomarker immunoassays for Aß1-42/1-40 and phosphorylated Tau181 to predict brain amyloid deposition.

Brain Region-Specific Differences in Amyloid-ß Plaque Composition in 5XFAD Mice.

Senile plaques consisting of amyloid-beta (Aß) peptides are a major pathological hallmark of Alzheimer's disease (AD). Aß peptides are heterogeneous regarding the exact length of their amino- and carboxy-termini. Aß1-40 and Aß1-42 are often considered to represent canonical "full-length" Aß species. Using immunohistochemistry, we analyzed the distribution of Aß1-x, Aßx-42 and Aß4-x species in amyloid deposits in the subiculum, hippocampus and cortex in 5XFAD mice during aging. Overall plaque load increased in all three brain regions, with the subiculum being the area with the strongest relative plaque coverage. In the subiculum, but not in the other brain regions, the Aß1-x load peaked at an age of five months and decreased thereafter. In contrast, the density of plaques positive for N-terminally truncated Aß4-x species increased continuously over time. We hypothesize that ongoing plaque remodeling takes place, leading to a conversion of deposited Aß1-x peptides into Aß4-x peptides in brain regions with a high Aß plaque burden.

A Combination of Caffeine Supplementation and Enriched Environment in an Alzheimer's Disease Mouse Model.

A variety of factors has been associated with healthy brain aging, and epidemiological studies suggest that physical activity and nutritional supplements such as caffeine may reduce the risk of developing dementia and, in particular, Alzheimer's disease (AD) in later life. Caffeine is known to act as a cognitive enhancer but has been also shown to positively affect exercise performance in endurance activities. We have previously observed that chronic oral caffeine supplementation and a treatment paradigm encompassing physical and cognitive stimulation by enriched environment (EE) housing can improve learning and memory performance and ameliorate hippocampal neuron loss in the Tg4-42 mouse model of AD. Here, we investigated whether these effects were synergistic. To that end, previous findings on individual treatments were complemented with unpublished, additional data and analyzed in depth by ANOVA followed by Bonferroni multiple comparison post tests. We further evaluated whether plasma neurofilament light chain levels reflect neuropathological and behavioral changes observed in the experimental groups. While a treatment combining physical activity and caffeine supplementation significantly improved learning and memory function compared to standard-housed vehicle-treated Tg4-42 in tasks such as the Morris water maze, no major additive effect outperforming the effects of the single interventions was observed.

Matrix Development for the Detection of Phosphorylated Amyloid-ß Peptides by MALDI-TOF-MS.

Amyloid-ß (Aß) peptides, including post-translationally modified variants thereof, are believed to play a key role in the onset and progression of Alzheimer's disease. Suggested modified Aß species with potential disease relevance include Aß peptides phosphorylated at serine in position eight (pSer8-Aß) or 26 (pSer26-Aß). However, the published studies on those Aß peptides essentially relied on antibody-based approaches. Thus, complementary analyses by mass spectrometry, as shown for other modified Aß variants, will be necessary not only to unambiguously verify the existence of phosphorylated Aß species in brain samples but also to reveal their exact identity as to phosphorylation sites and potential terminal truncations. With the aim of providing a novel tool for addressing this still-unresolved issue, we developed a customized matrix formulation, referred to as TOPAC, that allows for improved detection of synthetic phosphorylated Aß species by matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization time-of-flight mass spectrometry. When TOPAC was compared with standard matrices, we observed higher signal intensities but minimal methionine oxidation and phosphate loss for intact pSer8-Aß(1-40) and pSer26-Aß(1-40). Similarly, TOPAC also improved the mass spectrometric detection and sequencing of the proteolytic cleavage products pSer8-Aß(1-16) and pSer26-Aß(17-28). We expect that TOPAC will facilitate future efforts to detect and characterize endogenous phosphorylated Aß species in biological samples and that it may also find its use in phospho-proteomic approaches apart from applications in the Aß field.

Is plasma amyloid-ß 1-42/1-40 a better biomarker for Alzheimer's disease than AßX-42/X-40?

BACKGROUND: A reduced amyloid-ß (Aß)42/40 peptide ratio in blood plasma represents a peripheral biomarker of the cerebral amyloid pathology observed in Alzheimer's disease brains. The magnitude of the measurable effect in plasma is smaller than in cerebrospinal fluid, presumably due to dilution by Aß peptides originating from peripheral sources. We hypothesized that the observable effect in plasma can be accentuated to some extent by specifically measuring Aß1-42 and Aß1-40 instead of AßX-42 and AßX-40. METHODS: We assessed the plasma AßX-42/X-40 and Aß1-42/1-40 ratios in an idealized clinical sample by semi-automated Aß immunoprecipitation followed by closely related sandwich immunoassays. The amyloid-positive and amyloid-negative groups (dichotomized according to Aß42/40 in cerebrospinal fluid) were compared regarding the median difference, mean difference, standardized effect size (Cohen's d) and receiver operating characteristic curves. For statistical evaluation, we applied bootstrapping. RESULTS: The median Aß1-42/1-40 ratio was 20.86% lower in amyloid-positive subjects than in the amyloid-negative group, while the median AßX-42/X-40 ratio was only 15.56% lower. The relative mean difference between amyloid-positive and amyloid-negative subjects was -18.34% for plasma Aß1-42/1-40 compared to -15.50% for AßX-42/X-40. Cohen's d was 1.73 for Aß1-42/1-40 and 1.48 for plasma AßX-42/X-40. Unadjusted p-values < 0.05 were obtained after .632 bootstrapping for all three parameters. Receiver operating characteristic analysis indicated very similar areas under the curves for plasma Aß1-42/1-40 and AßX-42/X-40. CONCLUSIONS: Our findings support the hypothesis that the relatively small difference in the plasma Aß42/40 ratio between subjects with and without evidence of brain amyloidosis can be accentuated by specifically measuring Aß1-42/1-40 instead of AßX-42/X-40. A simplified theoretical model explaining this observation is presented.

Diagnostic performance of automated plasma amyloid-ß assays combined with pre-analytical immunoprecipitation.

BACKGROUND: Measurements of the amyloid-ß (Aß) 42/40 ratio in blood plasma may support the early diagnosis of Alzheimer's disease and aid in the selection of suitable participants in clinical trials. Here, we compared the diagnostic performance of fully automated prototype plasma Aß42/40 assays with and without pre-analytical sample workup by immunoprecipitation. METHODS: A pre-selected clinical sample comprising 42 subjects with normal and 38 subjects with low cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) Aß42/40 ratios was studied. The plasma Aß42/40 ratios were determined with fully automated prototype Elecsys® immunoassays (Roche Diagnostics GmbH, Penzberg, Germany) by direct measurements in EDTA plasma or after pre-analytical Aß immunoprecipitation. The diagnostic performance for the detection of abnormal CSF Aß42/40 was analyzed by receiver operating characteristic (ROC) analysis. In an additional post hoc analysis, a biomarker-supported clinical diagnosis was used as a second endpoint. RESULTS: Pre-analytical immunoprecipitation resulted in a significant increase in the area under the ROC curve (AUC) from 0.73 to 0.88 (p = 0.01547) for identifying subjects with abnormal CSF Aß42/40. A similar improvement in the diagnostic performance by pre-analytical immunoprecipitation was also observed when a biomarker-supported clinical diagnosis was used as a second endpoint (AUC increase from 0.77 to 0.92, p = 0.01576). CONCLUSIONS: Our preliminary observations indicate that pre-analytical Aß immunoprecipitation can improve the diagnostic performance of plasma Aß assays for detecting brain amyloid pathology. The findings may aid in the further development of blood-based immunoassays for Alzheimer's disease ultimately suitable for screening and routine use.

Detection and quantification of Aß-3-40 (APP669-711) in cerebrospinal fluid.

Neurochemical biomarkers can support the diagnosis of Alzheimer's disease and may facilitate clinical trials. In blood plasma, the ratio of the amyloid-ß (Aß) peptides Aß-3-40/Aß1-42 can predict cerebral amyloid-ß pathology with high accuracy (Nakamura et al., 2018). Whether or not Aß-3-40 (aka. amyloid precursor protein (APP) 669-711) is also present in cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) is not clear. Here, we investigated whether Aß-3-40 can be detected in CSF and to what extent the CSF Aß-3-40/Aß42 ratio is able to differentiate between individuals with or without amyloid-ß positron emission tomography (PET) evidence of brain amyloid. The occurrence of Aß-3-40 in human CSF was assessed by immunoprecipitation followed by mass spectrometry. For quantifying the CSF concentrations of Aß-3-40 in 23 amyloid PET-negative and 17 amyloid PET-positive subjects, we applied a sandwich-type immunoassay. Our findings provide clear evidence of the presence of Aß-3-40 and Aß-3-38 in human CSF. While there was no statistically significant difference in the CSF concentration of Aß-3-40 between the two diagnostic groups, the CSF Aß-3-40/Aß42 ratio was increased in the amyloid PET-positive individuals. We conclude that Aß-3-40 appears to be a regular constituent of CSF and may potentially serve to accentuate the selective decrease in CSF Aß42 in Alzheimer's disease.

Evaluation of cerebrospinal fluid glycoprotein NMB (GPNMB) as a potential biomarker for Alzheimer's disease.

BACKGROUND: Alzheimer's disease (AD) is a neurodegenerative disorder associated with extracellular amyloid-ß peptide deposition and progressive neuron loss. Strong evidence supports that neuroinflammatory changes such as the activation of astrocytes and microglia cells are important in the disease process. Glycoprotein nonmetastatic melanoma protein B (GPNMB) is a transmembrane glycoprotein that has recently been associated with an emerging role in neuroinflammation, which has been reported to be increased in post-mortem brain samples from AD and Parkinson's disease patients. METHODS: The present study describes the partial "fit for purpose" validation of a commercially available immunoassay for the determination of GPNMB levels in the cerebrospinal fluid (CSF). We further assessed the applicability of GPNMB as a potential biomarker for AD in two different cohorts that were defined by biomarker-supported clinical diagnosis or by neuroimaging with amyloid positron emission tomography, respectively. RESULTS: The results indicated that CSF GPNMB levels could not distinguish between AD or controls with other neurological diseases but correlated with other parameters such as aging and CSF pTau levels. CONCLUSIONS: The findings of this study do not support GPNMB in CSF as a valuable neurochemical diagnostic biomarker of AD but warrant further studies employing healthy control individuals.

Development and Technical Validation of an Immunoassay for the Detection of APP669-711 (Aß-3-40) in Biological Samples.

The ratio of amyloid precursor protein (APP)669-711 (Aß-3-40)/Aß1-42 in blood plasma was reported to represent a novel Alzheimer's disease biomarker. Here, we describe the characterization of two antibodies against the N-terminus of Aß-3-x and the development and "fit-for-purpose" technical validation of a sandwich immunoassay for the measurement of Aß-3-40. Antibody selectivity was assessed by capillary isoelectric focusing immunoassay, Western blot analysis, and immunohistochemistry. The analytical validation addressed assay range, repeatability, specificity, between-run variability, impact of pre-analytical sample handling procedures, assay interference, and analytical spike recoveries. Blood plasma was analyzed after Aß immunoprecipitation by a two-step immunoassay procedure. Both monoclonal antibodies detected Aß-3-40 with no appreciable cross reactivity with Aß1-40 or N-terminally truncated Aß variants. However, the amyloid precursor protein was also recognized. The immunoassay showed high selectivity for Aß-3-40 with a quantitative assay range of 22 pg/mL-7.5 ng/mL. Acceptable intermediate imprecision of the complete two-step immunoassay was reached after normalization. In a small clinical sample, the measured Aß42/Aß-3-40 and Aß42/Aß40 ratios were lower in patients with dementia of the Alzheimer's type than in other dementias. In summary, the methodological groundwork for further optimization and future studies addressing the Aß42/Aß-3-40 ratio as a novel biomarker candidate for Alzheimer's disease has been set.

The Role of Cathepsin B in the Degradation of Aß and in the Production of Aß Peptides Starting With Ala2 in Cultured Astrocytes.

Astrocytes may not only be involved in the clearance of Amyloid beta peptides (Aß) in Alzheimer's disease (AD), but appear to produce N-terminally truncated Aß (Aßn-x) independently of BACE1, which generates the N-Terminus of Aß starting with Asp1 (Aß1-x). A candidate protease for the generation of Aßn-x is cathepsin B (CatB), especially since CatB has also been reported to degrade Aß, which could explain the opposite roles of astrocytes in AD. In this study, we investigated the influence of CatB inhibitors and the deletion of the gene encoding CatB (CTSB) using CRISPR/Cas9 technology on Aß2-x and Aß1-x levels in cell culture supernatants by one- and two-dimensional Urea-SDS-PAGE followed by immunoblot. While the cell-permeant inhibitors E64d and CA-074 Me did not significantly affect the Aß1-x levels in supernatants of cultured chicken and human astrocytes, they did reduce the Aß2-x levels. In the glioma-derived cell line H4, the Aß2-x levels were likewise decreased in supernatants by treatment with the more specific, but cell-impermeant CatB-inhibitor CA-074, by CA-074 Me treatment, and by CTSB gene deletion. Additionally, a more than 2-fold increase in secreted Aß1-x was observed under the latter two conditions. The CA-074 Me-mediated increase of Aß1-x, but not the decrease of Aß2-x, was influenced by concomitant treatment with the vacuolar H+-ATPase inhibitor Bafilomycin A1. This indicated that non-lysosomal CatB mediated the production of Aß2-x in astrocytes, while the degradation of Aß1-x seemed to be dependent on lysosomal CatB in H4 cells, but not in primary astrocytes. These findings highlight the importance of considering organelle targeting in drug development to promote Aß degradation.

N-Terminal Truncated Aß4-42 Is a Substrate for Neprilysin Degradation in vitro and in vivo.

In sporadic Alzheimer's disease (AD), an imbalance between production and clearance of amyloid-ß (Aß) peptides seems to account for enhanced Aß accumulation. The metalloprotease neprilysin (NEP) is an important Aß degrading enzyme as shown by a variety of in vitro and in vivo studies. While the degradation of full-length Aß peptides such as Aß1-40 and Aß1-42 is well established, it is less clear whether NEP is also capable of degrading N-terminally truncated Aß species such as the common variant Aß4-42. In the present report, we confirmed the degradation of Aß4-x species by neprilysin using in vitro digestion and subsequent analysis using gel-based assays and mass spectrometry. By crossing Tg4-42 mice expressing only Aß4-42 peptides with homozygous NEP-knock-out mice (NEP-/-), we were able to demonstrate that NEP deficiency increased hippocampal intraneuronal Aß levels and aggravated neuron loss in the Tg4-42 transgenic mouse model of AD.

A two-step immunoassay for the simultaneous assessment of Aß38, Aß40 and Aß42 in human blood plasma supports the Aß42/Aß40 ratio as a promising biomarker candidate of Alzheimer's disease.

BACKGROUND: The quantification of amyloid-beta (Aß) peptides in blood plasma as potential biomarkers of Alzheimer's disease (AD) is hampered by very low Aß concentrations and the presence of matrix components that may interfere with the measurements. METHODS: We developed a two-step immunoassay for the simultaneous measurement of the relative levels of Aß38, Aß40 and Aß42 in human EDTA plasma. The assay was employed for the study of 23 patients with dementia of the Alzheimer's type (AD-D) and 17 patients with dementia due to other reasons (OD). We examined relationships with the clinical diagnosis, cerebral Aß load as quantified by amyloid-positron emission tomography, apolipoprotein E genotype, Aß levels and Tau protein in cerebrospinal fluid. RESULTS: Preconcentration of plasma Aß peptides by immunoprecipitation substantially facilitated their immunological measurements. The Aß42/Aß40 and Aß42/Aß38 ratios were statistically significantly lower in the AD-D patients than in the OD group. The areas under the receiver operating characteristic curves reached 0.87 for the Aß42/Aß40 ratio and 0.80 for the Aß42/Aß38 ratio. CONCLUSIONS: The measurement of plasma Aß peptides with an immunological assay can be improved by preconcentration via immunoprecipitation with an antibody against the Aß amino-terminus and elution of the captured peptides by heating in a mild detergent-containing buffer. Our findings support the Aß42/Aß40 ratio in blood plasma as a promising AD biomarker candidate which correlates significantly with the validated core biomarkers of AD. Further studies will be needed for technical advancement of the assay and validation of the biomarker findings.

Glycoprotein NMB: a novel Alzheimer's disease associated marker expressed in a subset of activated microglia.

Alzheimer's disease (AD) is an irreversible, devastating neurodegenerative brain disorder characterized by the loss of neurons and subsequent cognitive decline. Despite considerable progress in the understanding of the pathophysiology of AD, the precise molecular mechanisms that cause the disease remain elusive. By now, there is ample evidence that activated microglia have a critical role in the initiation and progression of AD. The present study describes the identification of Glycoprotein nonmetastatic melanoma protein B (GPNMB) as a novel AD-related factor in both transgenic mice and sporadic AD patients by expression profiling, immunohistochemistry and ELISA measurements. We show that GPNMB levels increase in an age-dependent manner in transgenic AD models showing profound cerebral neuron loss and demonstrate that GPNMB co-localizes with a distinct population of IBA1-positive microglia cells that cluster around amyloid plaques. Our data further indicate that GPNMB is part of a microglia activation state that is only present under neurodegenerative conditions and that is characterized by the up-regulation of a subset of genes including TREM2, APOE and CST7. In agreement, we provide in vitro evidence that soluble Aß has a direct effect on GPNMB expression in an immortalized microglia cell line. Importantly, we show for the first time that GPNMB is elevated in brain samples and cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) of sporadic AD patients when compared to non-demented controls.The current findings indicate that GPNMB represents a novel disease-associated marker that appears to play a role in the neuroinflammatory response of AD.

Micro-droplet arrays for micro-compartmentalization using an air/water interface.

Here we present a water-in-air droplet platform for micro-compartmentalization for single molecule guided synthesis and analysis consisting of a flow-system hosting dense arrays of aqueous microdroplets on a glass surface surrounded by air. The droplets are formed in a few seconds by passing a waterfront over the array of hydrophilic spots surrounded by a hydrophobic coating, thus forming a micro-droplet array (MDA). The droplet volumes are tunable from approximately 50 femtoliter to 20 picoliter by adjusting the size of the hydrophilic spots. MDAs consisting of femtoliter volume droplets were stable for more than 24 hours in air at 37 °C in a reversibly sealed flow-system, thus allowing us to perform assays that require long incubations in the droplets. Using differently fluorescing liquids, it was further shown that droplets can be reformed on the same MDA several times by passing a new liquid plug over the surface, and that fluorescence from one reaction can be washed away with little to no carry-over, hence allowing for multistep reactions to be carried out on the system. The MDA created by an air/water interface supported digital immunoassays as was demonstrated by measuring the Aß42 peptide in cerebrospinal fluid of Alzheimers patients and control patients. To demonstrate a two step droplet assay, first, histidine tagged peptides were expressed in the droplets and bound to the droplet-enclosed surface. Subsequently, the his-tagged peptides were detected using enzyme-conjugated antibodies in a second droplet generation step. As such, the chip demonstrates features necessary for library preparations for high throughput screening applications.

The Effect of SH2B1 Variants on Expression of Leptin- and Insulin-Induced Pathways in Murine Hypothalamus.

OBJECTIVE: We aimed to determine the effect of human SH2B1 variants on leptin and insulin signaling, major regulators of energy homeostasis, on the RNA level. METHODS: We analyzed the expression of infrequent alleles of seven SH2B1 variants (Arg67Cys, Lys150Arg, Thr175Ala, Thr343Met, Thr484Ala, Ser616Pro and Pro689Leu) in response to insulin or leptin cell stimulation. Two of these were identified in own mutation screens, the others were predicted to be deleterious or to serve as controls. The variants were analyzed in a homologous system of mouse hypothalamic cells. Changes in expression of downstream genes were measured. Student's t-test for independent samples was applied and effect sizes using Cohen's d were calculated. RESULTS: In 34 of 54 analyzed genes involved in leptin (JAK/STAT or AKT) signaling, variants nominally changed expression. The expression of three genes was considerably increased (p values ≤ 0.001: Gbp2b (67Cys; d = 25.11), Irf9 (689Leu; d = 44.65) and Isg15 (150Arg; d = 20.35)). Of 32 analyzed genes in the insulin signaling pathway, the expression of 10 genes nominally changed (p ≤ 0.05), three resulted in p values ≤ 0.01 ( Cap1 (150Arg; d = 7.48), Mapk1 (343Met; d = ­6.80) and Sorbs1 (689Leu; d = 7.82)). CONCLUSION: The increased expression of genes in leptin (JAK/STAT or AKT) signaling implies that the main mode of action for human SH2B1 mutations might affect leptin signaling rather than insulin signaling.