Soil methane emissions from plain poplar (Populus spp.) plantations with contrasting soil textures.

The forest soil methane (CH4) flux exhibits high spatiotemporal variability. Understanding these variations and their driving factors is crucial for accurately assessing the forest CH4 budget. In this study, we monitored the diurnal and seasonal variations in soil CH4 fluxes in two poplar (Populus spp.) plantations (Sihong and Dongtai) with different soil textures using the static chamber-based method. The results showed that the annual average soil CH4 flux in the Sihong and Dongtai poplar plantations was 4.27 ± 1.37 kg CH4-C ha-1 yr-1 and 1.92 ± 1.07 kg CH4-C ha-1 yr-1, respectively. Both plantations exhibited net CH4 emissions during the growing season, with only weak CH4 absorption (-0.01 to -0.007 mg m-2 h-1) during the non-growing season. Notably, there was a significant difference in soil CH4 flux between the clay loam of the Sihong poplar plantation and the sandy loam of the Dongtai poplar plantation. From August to December 2019 and from July to August and November 2020, the soil CH4 flux in the Sihong poplar plantation was significantly higher than in the Dongtai poplar plantation. Moreover, the soil CH4 flux significantly increased with rising soil temperature and soil water content. Diurnally, the soil CH4 flux followed a unimodal variation pattern at different growing stages of poplars, with peaks occurring at noon and in the afternoon. However, the soil CH4 flux did not exhibit a consistent seasonal pattern across different years, likely due to substantial variations in precipitation and soil water content. Overall, our study emphasizes the need for a comprehensive understanding of the spatiotemporal variations in forest soil CH4 flux with different soil textures. This understanding is vital for developing reasonable forest management strategies and reducing uncertainties in the global CH4 budget.

Biomass allocation and plant morphology explain the difference in shrub species abundance in a temperate forest.

In forested ecosystems, shrubs must succeed in persisting in low-light environments, while simultaneously having the ability to rapidly expand and occupy newly created canopy openings, yet little is known about the traits that make this possible. We hypothesize that shrub species that are abundant in the understory exhibit a specific set of functional traits that define their ability to persist during unfavorable periods and to rapidly exploit newly created habitats. We tested this by comparing field-measured functional traits such as biomass allocation, leaf display, crown morphology, and leaf traits, across individual size classes and two gap-forest environments of five shrub species. We observed significant differences in traits between species, size classes, and gap-forest environments. These differences were primarily related to biomass allocation traits, followed by leaf display, crown morphology, and leaf traits. Abundant shrubs like mountain maple (Acer spicatum) and hazelnut (Corylus cornuta) invested significantly more biomass in roots, had a larger total leaf area, and displayed leaves in a more efficient manner to intercept light. The high investment in root biomass can be interpreted as shrubs exploiting the persistence and colonization strategy through resprouting. Permanent sub-canopy status likely explains the importance of efficient leaf display, wherein abundant shrubs had a large leaf area with minimal support structures.

Nitrogen addition promotes terrestrial plants to allocate more biomass to aboveground organs: A global meta-analysis.

A significant increase in reactive nitrogen (N) added to terrestrial ecosystems through agricultural fertilization or atmospheric deposition is considered to be one of the most widespread drivers of global change. Modifying biomass allocation is one primary strategy for maximizing plant growth rate, survival, and adaptability to various biotic and abiotic stresses. However, there is much uncertainty as to whether and how plant biomass allocation strategies change in response to increased N inputs in terrestrial ecosystems. Here, we synthesized 3516 paired observations of plant biomass and their components related to N additions across terrestrial ecosystems worldwide. Our meta-analysis reveals that N addition (ranging from 1.08 to 113.81 g m-2 year-1 ) increased terrestrial plant biomass by 55.6% on average. N addition has increased plant stem mass fraction, shoot mass fraction, and leaf mass fraction by 13.8%, 12.9%, and 13.4%, respectively, but with an associated decrease in plant reproductive mass (including flower and fruit biomass) fraction by 3.4%. We further documented a reduction in plant root-shoot ratio and root mass fraction by 27% (21.8%-32.1%) and 14.7% (11.6%-17.8%), respectively, in response to N addition. Meta-regression results showed that N addition effects on plant biomass were positively correlated with mean annual temperature, soil available phosphorus, soil total potassium, specific leaf area, and leaf area per plant. Nevertheless, they were negatively correlated with soil total N, leaf carbon/N ratio, leaf carbon and N content per leaf area, as well as the amount and duration of N addition. In summary, our meta-analysis suggests that N addition may alter terrestrial plant biomass allocation strategies, leading to more biomass being allocated to aboveground organs than belowground organs and growth versus reproductive trade-offs. At the global scale, leaf functional traits may dictate how plant species change their biomass allocation pattern in response to N addition.

Vegetation browning: global drivers, impacts, and feedbacks.

As global climate conditions continue to change, disturbance regimes and environmental drivers will continue to shift, impacting global vegetation dynamics. Following a period of vegetation greening, there has been a progressive increase in remotely sensed vegetation browning globally. Given the many societal benefits that forests provide, it is critical that we understand vegetation dynamic alterations. Here, we review associative drivers, impacts, and feedbacks, revealing the complexity of browning. Concomitant increases in browning include the weakening of ecosystem services and functions and alterations to vegetation structure and species composition, as well as the development of potential positive climate change feedbacks. Also discussed are the current challenges in browning detection and understanding associated impacts and feedbacks. Finally, we outline recommended strategies.

Drought-induced increase in tree mortality and corresponding decrease in the carbon sink capacity of Canada's boreal forests from 1970 to 2020.

Canada's boreal forests, which occupy approximately 30% of boreal forests worldwide, play an important role in the global carbon budget. However, there is little quantitative information available regarding the spatiotemporal changes in the drought-induced tree mortality of Canada's boreal forests overall and their associated impacts on biomass carbon dynamics. Here, we develop spatiotemporally explicit estimates of drought-induced tree mortality and corresponding biomass carbon sink capacity changes in Canada's boreal forests from 1970 to 2020. We show that the average annual tree mortality rate is approximately 2.7%. Approximately 43% of Canada's boreal forests have experienced significantly increasing tree mortality trends (71% of which are located in the western region of the country), and these trends have accelerated since 2002. This increase in tree mortality has resulted in significant biomass carbon losses at an approximate rate of 1.51 ± 0.29 MgC ha-1  year-1 (95% confidence interval) with an approximate total loss of 0.46 ± 0.09 PgC year-1 (95% confidence interval). Under the drought condition increases predicted for this century, the capacity of Canada's boreal forests to act as a carbon sink will be further reduced, potentially leading to a significant positive climate feedback effect.

Characterizing Seasonal Radial Growth Dynamics of Balsam Fir in a Cold Environment Using Continuous Dendrometric Data: A Case Study in a 12-Year Soil Warming Experiment.

Historical temperature records reveal that the boreal forest has been subjected to a significant lengthening of the thermal growing season since the middle of the last century, and climate models predict that this lengthening will continue in the future. Nevertheless, the potential phenological response of trees to changes in growing season length remains relatively undocumented, particularly for evergreen boreal tree species growing in cold environments. Here, we used the recently defined zero growth (ZG) concept to extract and characterize the metrics of seasonal radial growth dynamics for 12 balsam fir trees subjected to a 12-year soil warming experiment using high resolution radius dendrometer measurements. The ZG concept provides an accurate determination of growth seasonality (onset, cessation, duration, growth rates, and total growth) for these slow-growing trees characterized by significant shrinkage in tree diameter due to dehydration in the winter. Our analysis revealed that, on average, growth onset starts at day 152 ± 7 (±1 SE, 31 May-1 June) and ceases at day 244 ± 27 (31 August-1 September), for a growing season duration of about 3 months (93 ± 26 days) over a 12-year period. Growing season duration is mainly determined by growth cessation, while growth onset varies little between years. A large part (80%) of the total growth occurs in the first 50 days of the growing season. Given the dynamics of growth, early growth cessation (shorter growing season) results in a higher average seasonal growth rate, meaning that longer growing seasons are not necessarily associated with greater tree growth. Soil warming induces earlier growth cessation, but increases the mean tree growth rate by 18.1% and the total annual growth by 9.1%, on average, as compared to the control trees. Our results suggest that a higher soil temperature for warmed trees contributes to providing better growth conditions and higher growth rates in the early growing season, when the soil temperature is low and the soil water content is elevated because of snowmelt. Attaining a critical soil temperature earlier, coupled with lower soil water content, may have contributed to the earlier growth cessation and shorter growing season of warmed trees.

Defoliation-induced changes in foliage quality may trigger broad-scale insect outbreaks.

Top-down effects, like predation, are drivers of insect outbreaks, but bottom-up effects, like host nutritional quality, also influence outbreaks and could in turn be altered by insect-caused defoliation. We evaluated the prediction that herbivory leads to a positive feedback on outbreak severity as nutrient concentration in plant tissues increases through improved soil nutrient availability from frass and litter deposition. Over seven years of a spruce budworm outbreak, we quantified litter nutrient fluxes, soil nitrogen availability, and host tree foliar nutrient status along a forest susceptibility gradient. As the outbreak progressed, both soil nutrient fluxes and availability increased which, in turn, improved foliage quality in surviving host trees. This is consistent with boosted insect fitness and increased population density and defoliation as outbreaks grow. Our results suggest that a positive bottom-up feedback to forest ecosystems from defoliation may result in conditions favorable to self-amplifying population dynamics in insect herbivores that can contribute to driving broad-scale outbreaks.

Methane emissions may be driven by hydrogenotrophic methanogens inhabiting the stem tissues of poplar.

Living trees in forests emit methane (CH4 ) from their stems. However, the magnitudes, patterns, drivers, origins, and biogeochemical pathways of these emissions remain poorly understood. We measured in situ CH4 fluxes in poplar stems and soils using static chambers and investigated the microbial communities of heartwood and sapwood by sequencing bacterial 16S, archaeal 16S, and fungal ITS rRNA genes. Methane emissions from poplar stems occurred throughout the sampling period. The mean CH4 emission rate was 2.7 mg m-2 stem d-1 . Stem CH4 emission rate increased significantly with air temperature, humidity, soil water content, and soil CH4 fluxes, but decreased with increasing sampling height. The CO2 reduction and methylotrophic methanogenesis were the major methanogenic pathways in wood tissues. The dominant methanogen groups detected in stem tissues were Methanobacterium, Methanobrevibacter, Rice Cluster I, Methanosarcina, Methanomassiliicoccus, Methanoculleus, and Methanomethylophilaceae. In addition, three methanotrophic genera were identified in the heartwood and sapwood - Methylocystis, Methylobacterium, and Paracoccus. Overall, stem CH4 emissions can originate directly from the internal tissues or co-occur from soils and stems. The co-existence of methanogens and methanotrophs within heartwood and sapwood highlights a need for future research in the microbial mechanisms underlying stem CH4 exchange with the atmosphere.

Sequential droughts: A silent trigger of boreal forest mortality.

Despite great concern for drought-driven forest mortality, the effects of frequent low-intensity droughts have been largely overlooked in the boreal forest because of their negligible impacts over the short term. In this study, we used data from 6876 permanent plots distributed across most of the Canadian boreal zone to assess the effects of repeated low-intensity droughts on forest mortality. Specifically, we compared the relative impact of sequential years under low-intensity dry conditions with the effects of variables related to the intensity of dry conditions, stand characteristics, and local climate. Then, we searched for thresholds in forest mortality as a function of the number of years between two forest surveys affected by dry conditions of any intensity. Our results showed that, in general, frequent low-intensity dry conditions had stronger effects on forest mortality than the intensity of the driest conditions in the plot. Frequent low-intensity dry conditions acted as an inciting factor of forest mortality exacerbated by stand characteristics and environmental conditions. Overall, the mortality of forests dominated by shade-tolerant conifers was significantly and positively related to frequent low-intensity dry conditions, supporting, in some cases, the existence of thresholds delimiting contrasting responses to drought. In mixtures with broadleaf species, however, sequential dry conditions had a negligible impact. The effects of frequent dry conditions on shade-intolerant forests mainly depended on local climate, inciting or mitigating the mortality of forests located in wet places and dominated by broadleaf species or jack pine, respectively. Our results highlight the importance of assessing not only climate-driven extreme events but also repeated disturbances of low intensity. In the long term, the smooth response of forests to dry conditions might abruptly change leading to disproportional mortality triggered by accumulated stress conditions. Forest and wildlife managers should consider the cumulative effects of climate change on mortality to avoid shortfalls in timber and habitat.

Tree characteristics and environmental noise in complex urban settings - A case study from Montreal, Canada.

Field studies have shown that dense tree canopies and regular tree arrangements reduce noise from a point source. In urban areas, noise sources are multiple and tree arrangements are rarely dense. There is a lack of data on the association between the urban tree canopy characteristics and noise in complex urban settings. Our aim was to investigate the spatial variation of urban tree canopy characteristics, indices of vegetation abundance, and environmental noise levels. Using Light Detection and Ranging point cloud data for 2015, we extracted the characteristics of 1,272,069 public and private trees across the island of Montreal, Canada. We distinguished needle-leaf from broadleaf trees, and calculated the percentage of broadleaf trees, the total area of the crown footprint, the mean crown centroid height, and the mean volume of crowns of trees that were located within 100m, 250m, 500m, and 1000m buffers around 87 in situ noise measurement sites. A random forest model incorporating tree characteristics, the normalized difference vegetation index (NDVI) values, and the distances to major urban noise sources (highways, railways and roads) was employed to estimate variation in noise among measurement locations. We found decreasing trends in noise levels with increases in total area of the crown footprint and mean crown centroid height. The percentages of increased mean squared error of the regression models indicated that in 500m buffers the total area of the crown footprint (29.2%) and the mean crown centroid height (12.6%) had a stronger influence than NDVI (3.2%) in modeling noise levels; similar patterns of influence were observed using other buffers. Our findings suggest that municipal initiatives designed to reduce urban noise should account for tree features, and not just the number of trees or the overall amount of vegetation.

Strong variations in urban allergenicity riskscapes due to poor knowledge of tree pollen allergenic potential.

Exposure to allergenic tree pollen is an increasing environmental health issue in urban areas. However, reliable, well-documented, peer-reviewed data on the allergenicity of pollen from common tree species in urban environments are lacking. Using the concept of 'riskscape', we present and discuss evidence on how different tree pollen allergenicity datasets shape the risk for pollen-allergy sufferers in five cities with different urban forests and population densities: Barcelona, Montreal, New York City, Paris, and Vancouver. We also evaluate how tree diversity can modify the allergenic risk of urban forests. We show that estimates of pollen exposure risk range from 1 to 74% for trees considered to be highly allergenic in the same city. This variation results from differences in the pollen allergenicity datasets, which become more pronounced when a city's canopy is dominated by only a few species and genera. In an increasingly urbanized world, diverse urban forests offer a potentially safer strategy aimed at diluting sources of allergenic pollen until better allergenicity data is developed. Our findings highlight an urgent need for a science-based approach to guide public health and urban forest planning.

The Vision of Managing for Pest-Resistant Landscapes: Realistic or Utopic?

Purpose of Review: Forest managers have long suggested that forests can be made more resilient to insect pests by reducing the abundance of hosts, yet this has rarely been done. The goal of our paper is to review whether recent scientific evidence supports forest manipulation to decrease vulnerability. To achieve this goal, we first ask if outbreaks of forest insect pests have been more severe in recent decades. Next, we assess the relative importance of climate change and forest management-induced changes in forest composition/structure in driving these changes in severity. Recent Findings: Forest structure and composition continue to be implicated in pest outbreak severity. Mechanisms, however, remain elusive. Recent research elucidates how forest compositional and structural diversity at neighbourhood, stand, and landscape scales can increase forest resistance to outbreaks. Many recent outbreaks of herbivorous forest insects have been unprecedented in terms of duration and spatial extent. Climate change may be a contributing factor, but forest structure and composition have been clearly identified as contributing to these unprecedented outbreaks. Summary: Current research supports using silviculture to create pest-resistant forest landscapes. However, the precise mechanisms by which silviculture can increase resistance remains uncertain. Further, humans tend to more often create pest-prone forests due to political, economic, and human resistance to change and a short-sighted risk management perspective that focuses on reactive rather than proactive responses to insect outbreak threats. Future research efforts need to focus on social, political, cultural, and educational mechanisms to motivate implementation of proven ecological solutions if pest-resistant forests are to be favoured by management.

A Comparison of Three Airborne Laser Scanner Types for Species Identification of Individual Trees.

Species identification is a critical factor for obtaining accurate forest inventories. This paper compares the same method of tree species identification (at the individual crown level) across three different types of airborne laser scanning systems (ALS): two linear lidar systems (monospectral and multispectral) and one single-photon lidar (SPL) system to ascertain whether current individual tree crown (ITC) species classification methods are applicable across all sensors. SPL is a new type of sensor that promises comparable point densities from higher flight altitudes, thereby increasing lidar coverage. Initial results indicate that the methods are indeed applicable across all of the three sensor types with broadly similar overall accuracies (Hardwood/Softwood, 83-90%; 12 species, 46-54%; 4 species, 68-79%), with SPL being slightly lower in all cases. The additional intensity features that are provided by multispectral ALS appear to be more beneficial to overall accuracy than the higher point density of SPL. We also demonstrate the potential contribution of lidar time-series data in improving classification accuracy (Hardwood/Softwood, 91%; 12 species, 58%; 4 species, 84%). Possible causes for lower SPL accuracy are (a) differences in the nature of the intensity features and (b) differences in first and second return distributions between the two linear systems and SPL. We also show that segmentation (and field-identified training crowns deriving from segmentation) that is performed on an initial dataset can be used on subsequent datasets with similar overall accuracy. To our knowledge, this is the first study to compare these three types of ALS systems for species identification at the individual tree level.

Beneficial effects of climate warming on boreal tree growth may be transitory.

Predicted increases in temperature and aridity across the boreal forest region have the potential to alter timber supply and carbon sequestration. Given the widely-observed variation in species sensitivity to climate, there is an urgent need to develop species-specific predictive models that can account for local conditions. Here, we matched the growth of 270,000 trees across a 761,100 km2 region with detailed site-level data to quantify the growth responses of the seven most common boreal tree species in Eastern Canada to changes in climate. Accounting for spatially-explicit species-specific responses, we find that while 2 °C of warming may increase overall forest productivity by 13 ± 3% (mean ± SE) in the absence of disturbance, additional warming could reverse this trend and lead to substantial declines exacerbated by reductions in water availability. Our results confirm the transitory nature of warming-induced growth benefits in the boreal forest and highlight the vulnerability of the ecosystem to excess warming and drying.

Drought timing and local climate determine the sensitivity of eastern temperate forests to drought.

Projected changes in temperature and drought regime are likely to reduce carbon (C) storage in forests, thereby amplifying rates of climate change. While such reductions are often presumed to be greatest in semi-arid forests that experience widespread tree mortality, the consequences of drought may also be important in temperate mesic forests of Eastern North America (ENA) if tree growth is significantly curtailed by drought. Investigations of the environmental conditions that determine drought sensitivity are critically needed to accurately predict ecosystem feedbacks to climate change. We matched site factors with the growth responses to drought of 10,753 trees across mesic forests of ENA, representing 24 species and 346 stands, to determine the broad-scale drivers of drought sensitivity for the dominant trees in ENA. Here we show that two factors-the timing of drought, and the atmospheric demand for water (i.e., local potential evapotranspiration; PET)-are stronger drivers of drought sensitivity than soil and stand characteristics. Drought-induced reductions in tree growth were greatest when the droughts occurred during early-season peaks in radial growth, especially for trees growing in the warmest, driest regions (i.e., highest PET). Further, mean species trait values (rooting depth and ψ50 ) were poor predictors of drought sensitivity, as intraspecific variation in sensitivity was equal to or greater than interspecific variation in 17 of 24 species. From a general circulation model ensemble, we find that future increases in early-season PET may exacerbate these effects, and potentially offset gains in C uptake and storage in ENA owing to other global change factors.

Comparing the effects of even- and uneven-aged silviculture on ecological diversity and processes: A review.

With an increasing pressure on forested landscapes, conservation areas may fail to maintain biodiversity if they are not supported by the surrounding managed forest matrix. Worldwide, forests are managed by one of two broad approaches-even- and uneven-aged silviculture. In recent decades, there has been rising public pressure against the systematic use of even-aged silviculture (especially clear-cutting) because of its perceived negative esthetic and ecological impacts. This led to an increased interest for uneven-aged silviculture. However, to date, there has been no worldwide ecological comparison of the two approaches, based on multiple indicators. Overall, for the 99 combinations of properties or processes verified (one study may have evaluated more than one property or process), we found nineteen (23) combinations that clearly showed uneven-aged silviculture improved the evaluated metrics compared to even-aged silviculture, eleven (16) combinations that showed the opposite, and 60 combinations that were equivocal. Furthermore, many studies were based on a limited study design without either a timescale (44 of the 76) or spatial (54 of the 76) scale consideration. Current views that uneven-aged silviculture is better suited than even-aged silviculture for maintaining ecological diversity and processes are not substantiated by our analyses. Our review, by studying a large range of indicators and many different taxonomic groups, also clearly demonstrates that no single approach can be relied on and that both approaches are needed to ensure a greater number of positive impacts. Moreover, the review clearly highlights the importance of maintaining protected areas as some taxonomic groups were found to be negatively affected no matter the management approach used. Finally, our review points to a lack of knowledge for determining the use of even- or uneven-aged silviculture in terms of both their respective proportion in the landscape and their spatial agency.

Extracting coherent tree-ring climatic signals across spatial scales from extensive forest inventory data.

Increasing access to extensively replicated and broadly distributed tree-ring collections has led to a greater use of these large data sets to investigate climate forcing on tree growth. However, the number of chronologies added to large accessible databases is declining and few are updated, while chronologies are often sparsely distributed and are more representative of marginal growing environments. On the other hand, National Forest Inventories (NFI), although poorly replicated at the plot level as compared to classic dendrochronological sampling, contain a large amount of tree-ring data with high spatial density designed to be spatially representative of the forest cover. We propose an a posteriori approach to validating tree-ring measurements and dating, selecting individual tree-ring width time series, and building average chronologies at various spatial scales based on an extensive collection of ring width measurements of nearly 94,000 black spruce trees distributed over a wide area and collected as part of the NFI in the province of Quebec, Canada. Our results show that reliable signals may be derived at various spatial scales (from 37 to 583,000 km2) from NFI increment core samples. Signals from independently built chronologies are spatially coherent with each other and well-correlated with independent reference chronologies built at the stand level. We thus conclude that tree-ring data from NFIs provide an extraordinary opportunity to strengthen the spatial and temporal coverage of tree-ring data and to improve coordination with other contemporary measurements of forest growth to provide a better understanding of tree growth-climate relationships over broad spatial scales.

Response of a boreal forest to canopy opening: assessing vertical and lateral tree growth with multi-temporal lidar data.

Fine-scale height-growth response of boreal trees to canopy openings is difficult to measure from the ground, and there are important limitations in using stereophotogrammetry in defining gaps and determining individual crowns and height. However, precise knowledge on height growth response to different openings is critical for refining partial harvesting techniques. In this study, we question whether conifers and hardwoods respond equally in terms of sapling growth or lateral growth to openings. We also ask to what distance gaps affect tree growth into the forest. We use multi-temporal lidar to characterize tree/sapling height and lateral growth responses over five years to canopy openings and high resolution images to identify conifers and hardwoods. Species-class-wise height-growth patterns of trees/saplings in various neighborhood contexts were determined across a 6-km matrix of Canadian boreal mixed deciduous coniferous forests. We then use statistical techniques to probe how these growth responses vary by spatial location with respect to the gap edge. Results confirm that both mechanisms of gap closure contribute to the closing of canopies at a rate of 1.2% per annum. Evidence also shows that both hardwood and conifer gap edge trees have a similar lateral growth (average of 22 cm/yr) and similar rates of height growth irrespective of their location and initial height. Height growth of all saplings, however, was strongly dependent on their position within the gap and the size of the gap. Results suggest that hardwood and softwood saplings in gaps have greatest growth rates at distances of 0.5-2 m and 1.5-4 m from the gap edge and in openings smaller than 800 m2 and 250 m2, respectively. Gap effects on the height growth of trees in the intact forest were evident up to 30 m and 20 m from gap edges for hardwood and softwood overstory trees, respectively. Our results thus suggest that foresters should consider silvicultural techniques that create many small openings in mixed coniferous deciduous boreal forests to maximize the growth response of both residual and regenerating trees.

Sustainable forest management preferences of interest groups in three regions with different levels of industrial forestry: an exploratory attribute-based choice experiment.

The challenge of sustainable forest management is to integrate diverse and sometimes conflicting management objectives. In order to achieve this goal, we need a better understanding of the aspects influencing the preferences of diverse groups and how these groups make trade-offs between different attributes of SFM. We compare the SFM preferences of interest groups in regions with different forest use histories based on the reasoning that the condition of the forest reflects the forest use history of the area. The condition of the forest also shapes an individual's forest values and attitudes. These held values and attitudes are thought to influence SFM preferences. We tested whether the SFM preferences vary amongst the different interest groups within and across regions. We collected data from 252 persons using a choice experiment approach, where participants chose multiple times among different options described by a combination of attributes that are assigned different levels. The novelty of our approach was the use of choice experiments in the assessment of regional preference differences. Given the complexity of inter-regional comparison and the small sample size, this was an exploratory study based on a purposive rather than random sample. Nevertheless, our results suggest that the aggregation of preferences of all individuals within a region does not reveal all information necessary for forest management planning since opposing viewpoints could cancel each other out and lead to an interpretation that does not reflect possibly polarised views. Although based on a small sample size, the preferences of interest groups within a region are generally statistically significantly different from each other; however preferences of interest groups across regions are also significantly different. This illustrates the potential importance of assessing heterogeneity by region and by group.

The role of cultural models in local perceptions of SFM--differences and similarities of interest groups from three boreal regions.

Differences in the way local and regional interest groups perceive Sustainable Forest Management in regions with different forest use histories were studied using Southeastern Finland, the Mauricie in Quebec and Central Labrador in Canada as examples of regions with high, medium and low importance of commercial forestry. We present a conceptual model illustrating the cyclic interaction between the forest, cultural models about forests and forest management. We hypothesized that peoples' perceptions would be influenced by their cultural models about forests and would thus vary amongst regions with different forest use histories and among different interest groups. The weightings of the environmental, economic and social components of sustainability as well as themes important for each of the interest groups were elicited using individual listing of SFM indicators and group work aimed at developing a consensus opinion on a common indicator list. In Southeastern Finland the views of the different groups were polarized along the environment-economy axis, whereas in Central Labrador all groups were environmentally oriented. The social dimension was low overall except among the Metis and the Innu in Labrador. Only environmental groups were similar in all three research regions, the largest differences between regions were found among the forestry professionals in their weightings concerning economy and nature. As the importance of commercial forestry increased, a greater importance of economic issues was expressed whereas the opposite trend was observed for issues regarding nature. Also inter-group differences grew as the importance of commercial forestry increased in the region. Forest management and forest use can be seen as factors strongly influencing peoples' cultural models on forests.