Rotavirus RNA chaperone mediates global transcriptome-wide increase in RNA backbone flexibility.

Due to genome segmentation, rotaviruses must co-package eleven distinct genomic RNAs. The packaging is mediated by virus-encoded RNA chaperones, such as the rotavirus NSP2 protein. While the activities of distinct RNA chaperones are well studied on smaller RNAs, little is known about their global effect on the entire viral transcriptome. Here, we used Selective 2'-hydroxyl Acylation Analyzed by Primer Extension and Mutational Profiling (SHAPE-MaP) to examine the secondary structure of the rotavirus transcriptome in the presence of increasing amounts of NSP2. SHAPE-MaP data reveals that despite the well-documented helix-unwinding activity of NSP2 in vitro, its incubation with cognate rotavirus transcripts does not induce a significant change in the SHAPE reactivities. However, a quantitative analysis of mutation rates measured by mutational profiling reveals a global 5-fold rate increase in the presence of NSP2. We demonstrate that the normalization procedure used in deriving SHAPE reactivities from mutation rates can mask an important global effect of an RNA chaperone. Analysis of the mutation rates reveals a larger effect on stems rather than loops. Together, these data provide the first experimentally derived secondary structure model of the rotavirus transcriptome and reveal that NSP2 acts by globally increasing RNA backbone flexibility in a concentration-dependent manner.

The SARS-CoV-2 RNA polymerase is a viral RNA capping enzyme.

SARS-CoV-2 is a positive-sense RNA virus responsible for the Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic, which continues to cause significant morbidity, mortality and economic strain. SARS-CoV-2 can cause severe respiratory disease and death in humans, highlighting the need for effective antiviral therapies. The RNA synthesis machinery of SARS-CoV-2 is an ideal drug target and consists of non-structural protein 12 (nsp12), which is directly responsible for RNA synthesis, and numerous co-factors involved in RNA proofreading and 5' capping of viral RNAs. The formation of the 5' 7-methylguanosine (m7G) cap structure is known to require a guanylyltransferase (GTase) as well as a 5' triphosphatase and methyltransferases; however, the mechanism of SARS-CoV-2 RNA capping remains poorly understood. Here we find that SARS-CoV-2 nsp12 is involved in viral RNA capping as a GTase, carrying out the addition of a GTP nucleotide to the 5' end of viral RNA via a 5' to 5' triphosphate linkage. We further show that the nsp12 NiRAN (nidovirus RdRp-associated nucleotidyltransferase) domain performs this reaction, and can be inhibited by remdesivir triphosphate, the active form of the antiviral drug remdesivir. These findings improve understanding of coronavirus RNA synthesis and highlight a new target for novel or repurposed antiviral drugs against SARS-CoV-2.

Two doses of SARS-CoV-2 vaccination induce robust immune responses to emerging SARS-CoV-2 variants of concern.

The extent to which immune responses to natural infection with severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) and immunization with vaccines protect against variants of concern (VOC) is of increasing importance. Accordingly, here we analyse antibodies and T cells of a recently vaccinated, UK cohort, alongside those recovering from natural infection in early 2020. We show that neutralization of the VOC compared to a reference isolate of the original circulating lineage, B, is reduced: more profoundly against B.1.351 than for B.1.1.7, and in responses to infection or a single dose of vaccine than to a second dose of vaccine. Importantly, high magnitude T cell responses are generated after two vaccine doses, with the majority of the T cell response directed against epitopes that are conserved between the prototype isolate B and the VOC. Vaccination is required to generate high potency immune responses to protect against these and other emergent variants.

Structure of an H3N2 influenza virus nucleoprotein.

Influenza A viruses of the H1N1 and H3N2 subtypes are responsible for seasonal epidemic events. The influenza nucleoprotein (NP) binds to the viral genomic RNA and is essential for its replication. Efforts are under way to produce therapeutics and vaccines targeting the NP. Despite this, no structure of an NP from an H3N2 virus has previously been determined. Here, the structure of the A/Northern Territory/60/1968 (H3N2) influenza virus NP is presented at 2.2 Šresolution. The structure is highly similar to those of the A/WSN/1933 (H1N1) and A/Hong Kong/483/97 (H5N1) NPs. Nonconserved amino acids are widely dispersed both at the sequence and structural levels. A movement of the 73-90 RNA-binding loop is observed to be the key difference between the structure determined here and previous structures. The data presented here increase the understanding of structural conservation amongst influenza NPs and may aid in the design of universal interventions against influenza.

Correlative multi-scale cryo-imaging unveils SARS-CoV-2 assembly and egress.

Since the outbreak of the SARS-CoV-2 pandemic, there have been intense structural studies on purified viral components and inactivated viruses. However, structural and ultrastructural evidence on how the SARS-CoV-2 infection progresses in the native cellular context is scarce, and there is a lack of comprehensive knowledge on the SARS-CoV-2 replicative cycle. To correlate cytopathic events induced by SARS-CoV-2 with virus replication processes in frozen-hydrated cells, we established a unique multi-modal, multi-scale cryo-correlative platform to image SARS-CoV-2 infection in Vero cells. This platform combines serial cryoFIB/SEM volume imaging and soft X-ray cryo-tomography with cell lamellae-based cryo-electron tomography (cryoET) and subtomogram averaging. Here we report critical SARS-CoV-2 structural events - e.g. viral RNA transport portals, virus assembly intermediates, virus egress pathway, and native virus spike structures, in the context of whole-cell volumes revealing drastic cytppathic changes. This integrated approach allows a holistic view of SARS-CoV-2 infection, from the whole cell to individual molecules.

Inclusion of cGAMP within virus-like particle vaccines enhances their immunogenicity.

Cyclic GMP-AMP (cGAMP) is an immunostimulatory molecule produced by cGAS that activates STING. cGAMP is an adjuvant when administered alongside antigens. cGAMP is also incorporated into enveloped virus particles during budding. Here, we investigate whether inclusion of cGAMP within viral vaccine vectors enhances their immunogenicity. We immunise mice with virus-like particles (VLPs) containing HIV-1 Gag and the vesicular stomatitis virus envelope glycoprotein G (VSV-G). cGAMP loading of VLPs augments CD4 and CD8 T-cell responses. It also increases VLP- and VSV-G-specific antibody titres in a STING-dependent manner and enhances virus neutralisation, accompanied by increased numbers of T follicular helper cells. Vaccination with cGAMP-loaded VLPs containing haemagglutinin induces high titres of influenza A virus neutralising antibodies and confers protection upon virus challenge. This requires cGAMP inclusion within VLPs and is achieved at markedly reduced cGAMP doses. Similarly, cGAMP loading of VLPs containing the SARS-CoV-2 Spike protein enhances Spike-specific antibody titres. cGAMP-loaded VLPs are thus an attractive platform for vaccination.

Global analysis of protein-RNA interactions in SARS-CoV-2-infected cells reveals key regulators of infection.

Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) causes coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19). SARS-CoV-2 relies on cellular RNA-binding proteins (RBPs) to replicate and spread, although which RBPs control its life cycle remains largely unknown. Here, we employ a multi-omic approach to identify systematically and comprehensively the cellular and viral RBPs that are involved in SARS-CoV-2 infection. We reveal that SARS-CoV-2 infection profoundly remodels the cellular RNA-bound proteome, which includes wide-ranging effects on RNA metabolic pathways, non-canonical RBPs, and antiviral factors. Moreover, we apply a new method to identify the proteins that directly interact with viral RNA, uncovering dozens of cellular RBPs and six viral proteins. Among them are several components of the tRNA ligase complex, which we show regulate SARS-CoV-2 infection. Furthermore, we discover that available drugs targeting host RBPs that interact with SARS-CoV-2 RNA inhibit infection. Collectively, our results uncover a new universe of host-virus interactions with potential for new antiviral therapies against COVID-19.

SARS-CoV-2 Assembly and Egress Pathway Revealed by Correlative Multi-modal Multi-scale Cryo-imaging.

Since the outbreak of the SARS-CoV-2 pandemic, there have been intense structural studies on purified recombinant viral components and inactivated viruses. However, investigation of the SARS-CoV-2 infection in the native cellular context is scarce, and there is a lack of comprehensive knowledge on SARS-CoV-2 replicative cycle. Understanding the genome replication, assembly and egress of SARS-CoV-2, a multistage process that involves different cellular compartments and the activity of many viral and cellular proteins, is critically important as it bears the means of medical intervention to stop infection. Here, we investigated SARS-CoV-2 replication in Vero cells under the near-native frozen-hydrated condition using a unique correlative multi-modal, multi-scale cryo-imaging approach combining soft X-ray cryo-tomography and serial cryoFIB/SEM volume imaging of the entire SARS-CoV-2 infected cell with cryo-electron tomography (cryoET) of cellular lamellae and cell periphery, as well as structure determination of viral components by subtomogram averaging. Our results reveal at the whole cell level profound cytopathic effects of SARS-CoV-2 infection, exemplified by a large amount of heterogeneous vesicles in the cytoplasm for RNA synthesis and virus assembly, formation of membrane tunnels through which viruses exit, and drastic cytoplasm invasion into nucleus. Furthermore, cryoET of cell lamellae reveals how viral RNAs are transported from double-membrane vesicles where they are synthesized to viral assembly sites; how viral spikes and RNPs assist in virus assembly and budding; and how fully assembled virus particles exit the cell, thus stablishing a model of SARS-CoV-2 genome replication, virus assembly and egress pathways.

Author Correction: Neutralizing nanobodies bind SARS-CoV-2 spike RBD and block interaction with ACE2.

An amendment to this paper has been published and can be accessed via a link at the top of the paper.

Structural basis for the neutralization of SARS-CoV-2 by an antibody from a convalescent patient.

The COVID-19 pandemic has had an unprecedented health and economic impact and there are currently no approved therapies. We have isolated an antibody, EY6A, from an individual convalescing from COVID-19 and have shown that it neutralizes SARS-CoV-2 and cross-reacts with SARS-CoV-1. EY6A Fab binds the receptor binding domain (RBD) of the viral spike glycoprotein tightly (KD of 2 nM), and a 2.6-Å-resolution crystal structure of an RBD-EY6A Fab complex identifies the highly conserved epitope, away from the ACE2 receptor binding site. Residues within this footprint are key to stabilizing the pre-fusion spike. Cryo-EM analyses of the pre-fusion spike incubated with EY6A Fab reveal a complex of the intact spike trimer with three Fabs bound and two further multimeric forms comprising the destabilized spike attached to Fab. EY6A binds what is probably a major neutralizing epitope, making it a candidate therapeutic for COVID-19.

Neutralizing nanobodies bind SARS-CoV-2 spike RBD and block interaction with ACE2.

The SARS-CoV-2 virus is more transmissible than previous coronaviruses and causes a more serious illness than influenza. The SARS-CoV-2 receptor binding domain (RBD) of the spike protein binds to the human angiotensin-converting enzyme 2 (ACE2) receptor as a prelude to viral entry into the cell. Using a naive llama single-domain antibody library and PCR-based maturation, we have produced two closely related nanobodies, H11-D4 and H11-H4, that bind RBD (KD of 39 and 12 nM, respectively) and block its interaction with ACE2. Single-particle cryo-EM revealed that both nanobodies bind to all three RBDs in the spike trimer. Crystal structures of each nanobody-RBD complex revealed how both nanobodies recognize the same epitope, which partly overlaps with the ACE2 binding surface, explaining the blocking of the RBD-ACE2 interaction. Nanobody-Fc fusions showed neutralizing activity against SARS-CoV-2 (4-6 nM for H11-H4, 18 nM for H11-D4) and additive neutralization with the SARS-CoV-1/2 antibody CR3022.

Comparative Molecular Biology Approaches for the Production of Poliovirus Virus-Like Particles Using Pichia pastoris.

For enteroviruses such as poliovirus (PV), empty capsids, which are antigenically indistinguishable from mature virions, are produced naturally during viral infection. The production of such capsids recombinantly, in heterologous systems such as yeast, have great potential as virus-like particle (VLP) vaccine candidates. Here, using PV as an exemplar, we show the production of VLPs in Pichia pastoris by coexpression of the structural precursor protein P1 and the viral protease 3CD. The level of expression of the potentially cytotoxic protease relative to that of the P1 precursor was modulated by three different approaches: expression of the P1 precursor and protease from different transcription units, separation of the P1 and protease proteins using the Thosea asigna virus (TaV) 2A translation interruption sequence, or separation of the P1 and protease-coding sequences by an internal ribosome entry site sequence from Rhopalosiphum padi virus (RhPV). We also investigate the antigenicity of VLPs containing previously characterized mutations when produced in Pichia Finally, using transmission electron microscopy and two-dimensional classification, we show that Pichia-derived VLPs exhibited the classical icosahedral capsid structure displayed by enteroviruses.IMPORTANCE Although the current poliovirus immunization program has been extremely successful in reducing the number of cases of paralytic polio worldwide, now more cases are caused by vaccine-derived polioviruses than by wild poliovirus. Switching to inactivated poliovirus vaccines will reduce this over time; however, their production requires the growth of large amounts of virus. This biosafety concern can be addressed by producing just the virus capsid. The capsid serves to protect the genetic material, which causes disease when introduced into a cell. Therefore, empty capsids (virus-like particles [VLPs]), which lack the viral RNA genome, are safe both to make and to use. We exploit yeast as a versatile model expression system to produce VLPs, and here we specifically highlight the potential of this system to supply next-generation poliovirus vaccines to secure a polio-free world for the future.

The structure of the influenza A virus genome.

Influenza A viruses (IAVs) constitute a major threat to human health. The IAV genome consists of eight single-stranded viral RNA segments contained in separate viral ribonucleoprotein (vRNP) complexes that are packaged together into a single virus particle. The structure of viral RNA is believed to play a role in assembling the different vRNPs into budding virions1-8 and in directing reassortment between IAVs9. Reassortment between established human IAVs and IAVs harboured in the animal reservoir can lead to the emergence of pandemic influenza strains to which there is little pre-existing immunity in the human population10,11. While previous studies have revealed the overall organization of the proteins within vRNPs, characterization of viral RNA structure using conventional structural methods is hampered by limited resolution and an inability to resolve dynamic components12,13. Here, we employ multiple high-throughput sequencing approaches to generate a global high-resolution structure of the IAV genome. We show that different IAV genome segments acquire distinct RNA conformations and form both intra- and intersegment RNA interactions inside influenza virions. We use our detailed map of IAV genome structure to provide direct evidence for how intersegment RNA interactions drive vRNP cosegregation during reassortment between different IAV strains. The work presented here is a roadmap both for the development of improved vaccine strains and for the creation of a framework to 'risk assess' reassortment potential to better predict the emergence of new pandemic influenza strains.