The herpesvirus UL49.5 protein hijacks a cellular C-degron pathway to drive TAP transporter degradation.

The transporter associated with antigen processing (TAP) is a key player in the major histocompatibility class I-restricted antigen presentation and an attractive target for immune evasion by viruses. Bovine herpesvirus 1 impairs TAP-dependent antigenic peptide transport through a two-pronged mechanism in which binding of the UL49.5 gene product to TAP both inhibits peptide transport and triggers its proteasomal degradation. How UL49.5 promotes TAP degradation has, so far, remained unknown. Here, we use high-content siRNA and genome-wide CRISPR-Cas9 screening to identify CLR2KLHDC3 as the E3 ligase responsible for UL49.5-triggered TAP disposal. We propose that the C terminus of UL49.5 mimics a C-end rule degron that recruits the E3 to TAP and engages the cullin-RING E3 ligase in endoplasmic reticulum-associated degradation.

UFM1 E3 ligase promotes recycling of 60S ribosomal subunits from the ER.

Reversible modification of target proteins by ubiquitin and ubiquitin-like proteins (UBLs) is widely used by eukaryotic cells to control protein fate and cell behaviour1. UFM1 is a UBL that predominantly modifies a single lysine residue on a single ribosomal protein, uL24 (also called RPL26), on ribosomes at the cytoplasmic surface of the endoplasmic reticulum (ER)2,3. UFM1 conjugation (UFMylation) facilitates the rescue of 60S ribosomal subunits (60S) that are released after ribosome-associated quality-control-mediated splitting of ribosomes that stall during co-translational translocation of secretory proteins into the ER3,4. Neither the molecular mechanism by which the UFMylation machinery achieves such precise target selection nor how this ribosomal modification promotes 60S rescue is known. Here we show that ribosome UFMylation in vivo occurs on free 60S and we present sequential cryo-electron microscopy snapshots of the heterotrimeric UFM1 E3 ligase (E3(UFM1)) engaging its substrate uL24. E3(UFM1) binds the L1 stalk, empty transfer RNA-binding sites and the peptidyl transferase centre through carboxy-terminal domains of UFL1, which results in uL24 modification more than 150 Å away. After catalysing UFM1 transfer, E3(UFM1) remains stably bound to its product, UFMylated 60S, forming a C-shaped clamp that extends all the way around the 60S from the transfer RNA-binding sites to the polypeptide tunnel exit. Our structural and biochemical analyses suggest a role for E3(UFM1) in post-termination release and recycling of the large ribosomal subunit from the ER membrane.

Small-molecule correctors divert CFTR-F508del from ERAD by stabilizing sequential folding states.

Over 80% of people with cystic fibrosis (CF) carry the F508del mutation in the cystic fibrosis transmembrane conductance regulator (CFTR), a chloride ion channel at the apical plasma membrane (PM) of epithelial cells. F508del impairs CFTR folding causing it to be destroyed by endoplasmic reticulum associated degradation (ERAD). Small-molecule correctors, which act as pharmacological chaperones to divert CFTR-F508del from ERAD, are the primary strategy for treating CF, yet corrector development continues with only a rudimentary understanding of how ERAD targets CFTR-F508del. We conducted genome-wide CRISPR/Cas9 knockout screens to systematically identify the molecular machinery that underlies CFTR-F508del ERAD. Although the ER-resident ubiquitin ligase, RNF5 was the top E3 hit, knocking out RNF5 only modestly reduced CFTR-F508del degradation. Sublibrary screens in an RNF5 knockout background identified RNF185 as a redundant ligase and demonstrated that CFTR-F508del ERAD is robust. Gene-drug interaction experiments illustrated that correctors tezacaftor (VX-661) and elexacaftor (VX-445) stabilize sequential, RNF5-resistant folding states. We propose that binding of correctors to nascent CFTR-F508del alters its folding landscape by stabilizing folding states that are not substrates for RNF5-mediated ubiquitylation.

The herpesvirus UL49.5 protein hijacks a cellular C-degron pathway to drive TAP transporter degradation.

The transporter associated with antigen processing (TAP) is a key player in the MHC class I-restricted antigen presentation and an attractive target for immune evasion by viruses. Bovine herpesvirus 1 (BoHV-1) impairs TAP-dependent antigenic peptide transport through a two-pronged mechanism in which binding of the UL49.5 gene product to TAP both inhibits peptide transport and promotes its proteasomal degradation. How UL49.5 promotes TAP degradation is unknown. Here, we use high-content siRNA and genome-wide CRISPR-Cas9 screening to identify CLR2KLHDC3 as the E3 ligase responsible for UL49.5-triggered TAP disposal in human cells. We propose that the C-terminus of UL49.5 mimics a C-end rule degron that recruits the E3 to TAP and engages the CRL2 E3 in ER-associated degradation.

Small molecule correctors divert CFTR-F508del from ERAD by stabilizing sequential folding states.

Over 80% of people with cystic fibrosis (CF) carry the F508del mutation in the cystic fibrosis transmembrane conductance regulator (CFTR), a chloride ion channel at the apical plasma membrane (PM) of epithelial cells. F508del impairs CFTR folding causing it to be destroyed by endoplasmic reticulum associated degradation (ERAD). Small molecule correctors, which act as pharmacological chaperones to divert CFTR-F508del from ERAD, are the primary strategy for treating CF, yet corrector development continues with only a rudimentary understanding of how ERAD targets CFTR-F508del. We conducted genome-wide CRISPR/Cas9 knockout screens to systematically identify the molecular machinery that underlies CFTR-F508del ERAD. Although the ER-resident ubiquitin ligase, RNF5 was the top E3 hit, knocking out RNF5 only modestly reduced CFTR-F508del degradation. Sublibrary screens in an RNF5 knockout background identified RNF185 as a redundant ligase, demonstrating that CFTR-F508del ERAD is highly buffered. Gene-drug interaction experiments demonstrated that correctors tezacaftor (VX-661) and elexacaftor (VX-445) stabilize sequential, RNF5-resistant folding states. We propose that binding of correctors to nascent CFTR-F508del alters its folding landscape by stabilizing folding states that are not substrates for RNF5-mediated ubiquitylation.

Parallel CRISPR-Cas9 screens identify mechanisms of PLIN2 and lipid droplet regulation.

Despite the key roles of perilipin-2 (PLIN2) in governing lipid droplet (LD) metabolism, the mechanisms that regulate PLIN2 levels remain incompletely understood. Here, we leverage a set of genome-edited human PLIN2 reporter cell lines in a series of CRISPR-Cas9 loss-of-function screens, identifying genetic modifiers that influence PLIN2 expression and post-translational stability under different metabolic conditions and in different cell types. These regulators include canonical genes that control lipid metabolism as well as genes involved in ubiquitination, transcription, and mitochondrial function. We further demonstrate a role for the E3 ligase MARCH6 in regulating triacylglycerol biosynthesis, thereby influencing LD abundance and PLIN2 stability. Finally, our CRISPR screens and several published screens provide the foundation for CRISPRlipid (http://crisprlipid.org), an online data commons for lipid-related functional genomics data. Our study identifies mechanisms of PLIN2 and LD regulation and provides an extensive resource for the exploration of LD biology and lipid metabolism.

RPL26/uL24 UFMylation is essential for ribosome-associated quality control at the endoplasmic reticulum.

Ribosomes that stall while translating cytosolic proteins are incapacitated by incomplete nascent chains, termed "arrest peptides" (APs) that are destroyed by the ubiquitin proteasome system (UPS) via a process known as the ribosome-associated quality control (RQC) pathway. By contrast, APs on ribosomes that stall while translocating secretory proteins into the endoplasmic reticulum (ER-APs) are shielded from cytosol by the ER membrane and the tightly sealed ribosome-translocon junction (RTJ). How this junction is breached to enable access of cytosolic UPS machinery and 26S proteasomes to translocon- and ribosome-obstructing ER-APs is not known. Here, we show that UPS and RQC-dependent degradation of ER-APs strictly requires conjugation of the ubiquitin-like (Ubl) protein UFM1 to 60S ribosomal subunits at the RTJ. Therefore, UFMylation of translocon-bound 60S subunits modulates the RTJ to promote access of proteasomes and RQC machinery to ER-APs.

RPL26/uL24 UFMylation is essential for ribosome-associated quality control at the endoplasmic reticulum.

Ribosomes that stall while translating cytosolic proteins are incapacitated by incomplete nascent chains, termed "arrest peptides" (APs) that are destroyed by the ubiquitin proteasome system (UPS) via a process known as the ribosome-associated quality control (RQC) pathway. By contrast, APs on ribosomes that stall while translocating secretory proteins into the endoplasmic reticulum (ER-APs) are shielded from cytosol by the ER membrane and the tightly sealed ribosome-translocon junction (RTJ). How this junction is breached to enable access of cytosolic UPS machinery and 26S proteasomes to translocon- and ribosome-obstructing ER-APs is not known. Here, we show that UPS and RQC-dependent degradation of ER-APs strictly requires conjugation of the ubiquitin-like (Ubl) protein UFM1 to 60S ribosomal subunits at the RTJ. Therefore, UFMylation of translocon-bound 60S subunits modulates the RTJ to promote access of proteasomes and RQC machinery to ER-APs. Significance Statement: UFM1 is a ubiquitin-like protein that is selectively conjugated to the large (60S) subunit of ribosomes bound to the endoplasmic reticulum (ER), but the specific biological function of this modification is unclear. Here, we show that UFMylation facilitates proteasome-mediated degradation of arrest polypeptides (APs) which are generated following splitting of ribosomes that stall during co-translational translocation of secretory proteins into the ER. We propose that UFMylation weakens the tightly sealed ribosome-translocon junction, thereby allowing the cytosolic ubiquitin-proteasome and ribosome-associated quality control machineries to access ER-APs.

A non-canonical scaffold-type E3 ligase complex mediates protein UFMylation.

Protein UFMylation, i.e., post-translational modification with ubiquitin-fold modifier 1 (UFM1), is essential for cellular and endoplasmic reticulum homeostasis. Despite its biological importance, we have a poor understanding of how UFM1 is conjugated onto substrates. Here, we use a rebuilding approach to define the minimal requirements of protein UFMylation. We find that the reported cognate E3 ligase UFL1 is inactive on its own and instead requires the adaptor protein UFBP1 to form an active E3 ligase complex. Structure predictions suggest the UFL1/UFBP1 complex to be made up of winged helix (WH) domain repeats. We show that UFL1/UFBP1 utilizes a scaffold-type E3 ligase mechanism that activates the UFM1-conjugating E2 enzyme, UFC1, for aminolysis. Further, we characterize a second adaptor protein CDK5RAP3 that binds to and forms an integral part of the ligase complex. Unexpectedly, we find that CDK5RAP3 inhibits UFL1/UFBP1 ligase activity in vitro. Results from reconstituting ribosome UFMylation suggest that CDK5RAP3 functions as a substrate adaptor that directs UFMylation to the ribosomal protein RPL26. In summary, our reconstitution approach reveals the biochemical basis of UFMylation and regulatory principles of this atypical E3 ligase complex.

PEX19 Coordinates Neutral Lipid Storage in Cells in a Peroxisome-Independent Fashion.

Cellular lipid metabolism is tightly regulated and requires a sophisticated interplay of multiple subcellular organelles to adapt to changing nutrient supply. PEX19 was originally described as an essential peroxisome biogenesis factor that selectively targets membrane proteins to peroxisomes. Metabolic aberrations that were associated with compromised PEX19 functions, were solely attributed to the absence of peroxisomes, which is also considered the underlying cause for Zellweger Spectrum Disorders. More recently, however, it was shown that PEX19 also mediates the targeting of the VCP/P97-recuitment factor UBXD8 to the ER from where it partitions to lipid droplets (LDs) but the physiological consequences remained elusive. Here, we addressed the intriguing possibility that PEX19 coordinates the functions of the major cellular sites of lipid metabolism. We exploited the farnesylation of PEX19 and deciphered the organelle-specific functions of PEX19 using systems level approaches. Non-farnesylated PEX19 is sufficient to fully restore the metabolic activity of peroxisomes, while farnesylated PEX19 controls lipid metabolism by a peroxisome-independent mechanism that can be attributed to sorting a specific protein subset to LDs. In the absence of this PEX19-dependent LD proteome, cells accumulate excess triacylglycerols and fail to fully deplete their neutral lipid stores under catabolic conditions, highlighting a hitherto unrecognized function of PEX19 in controlling neutral lipid storage and LD dynamics.

Phagocytic glia are obligatory intermediates in transmission of mutant huntingtin aggregates across neuronal synapses.

Emerging evidence supports the hypothesis that pathogenic protein aggregates associated with neurodegenerative diseases spread from cell to cell through the brain in a manner akin to infectious prions. Here, we show that mutant huntingtin (mHtt) aggregates associated with Huntington disease transfer anterogradely from presynaptic to postsynaptic neurons in the adult Drosophila olfactory system. Trans-synaptic transmission of mHtt aggregates is inversely correlated with neuronal activity and blocked by inhibiting caspases in presynaptic neurons, implicating synaptic dysfunction and cell death in aggregate spreading. Remarkably, mHtt aggregate transmission across synapses requires the glial scavenger receptor Draper and involves a transient visit to the glial cytoplasm, indicating that phagocytic glia act as obligatory intermediates in aggregate spreading between synaptically-connected neurons. These findings expand our understanding of phagocytic glia as double-edged players in neurodegeneration-by clearing neurotoxic protein aggregates, but also providing an opportunity for prion-like seeds to evade phagolysosomal degradation and propagate further in the brain.

Acute unfolding of a single protein immediately stimulates recruitment of ubiquitin protein ligase E3C (UBE3C) to 26S proteasomes.

The intracellular accumulation of aggregated misfolded proteins is a cytopathological hallmark of neurodegenerative diseases. However, the functional relationship between protein misfolding or aggregation and the cellular proteostasis network that monitors and maintains proteome health is poorly understood. Previous studies have associated translational suppression and transcriptional remodeling with the appearance of protein aggregates, but whether these responses are induced by aggregates or their misfolded monomeric or oligomeric precursors remains unclear. Because aggregation in cells is rapid, nonlinear, and asynchronous, it has not been possible to deconvolve these kinetically linked processes to determine the earliest cellular responses to misfolded proteins. Upon removal of the synthetic, biologically inert ligand shield-1 (S1), AgDD, an engineered variant FK506-binding protein (FKBP1A), rapidly (t½ ∼5 min) unfolds and self-associates, forming detergent-insoluble, microscopic cytoplasmic aggregates. Using global diglycine-capture (K-GG) proteomics, we found here that this solubility transition is associated with immediate increases in ubiquitylation of AgDD itself, along with that of endogenous proteins that are components of the ribosome and the 26S proteasome. We also found that the earliest cellular responses to acute S1 removal include recruitment of ubiquitin protein ligase E3C (UBE3C) to the 26S proteasome and ubiquitylation of two key proteasomal ubiquitin receptors, 26S proteasome regulatory subunit RPN10 (RPN10) and Rpn13 homolog (RPN13 or ADRM1). We conclude that these proteasomal responses are due to AgDD protein misfolding and not to the presence of detergent-insoluble aggregates.

Methods for genetic analysis of mammalian ER-associated degradation.

Identification and degradation of misfolded proteins by the ubiquitin-proteasome system (UPS) is crucial for maintaining proteostasis, but only a handful of UPS components have been linked to the recognition of specific substrates. Studies in Saccharomyces cerevisiae using systematic perturbation of nonessential genes have uncovered UPS components that recognize and ubiquitylate model substrates of the UPS; however, similar analyses in metazoans have been limited. In this chapter, we describe methods for using CRISPR/Cas9 technology combined with genome-wide high complexity single guide (sgRNA) libraries and a transcriptional shutoff strategy for phenotypic selection based on kinetic measurements of protein turnover to identify the genes required to degrade model clients of the mammalian ER-associated degradation system. We also discuss considerations for screen design, execution, and interpretation.

Ribosomal protein RPL26 is the principal target of UFMylation.

Ubiquitin fold modifier 1 (UFM1) is a small, metazoan-specific, ubiquitin-like protein modifier that is essential for embryonic development. Although loss-of-function mutations in UFM1 conjugation are linked to endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress, neither the biological function nor the relevant cellular targets of this protein modifier are known. Here, we show that a largely uncharacterized ribosomal protein, RPL26, is the principal target of UFM1 conjugation. RPL26 UFMylation and de-UFMylation is catalyzed by enzyme complexes tethered to the cytoplasmic surface of the ER and UFMylated RPL26 is highly enriched on ER membrane-bound ribosomes and polysomes. Biochemical analysis and structural modeling establish that UFMylated RPL26 and the UFMylation machinery are in close proximity to the SEC61 translocon, suggesting that this modification plays a direct role in cotranslational protein translocation into the ER. These data suggest that UFMylation is a ribosomal modification specialized to facilitate metazoan-specific protein biogenesis at the ER.

Genome-wide CRISPR Analysis Identifies Substrate-Specific Conjugation Modules in ER-Associated Degradation.

The ubiquitin proteasome system (UPS) maintains the integrity of the proteome by selectively degrading misfolded or mis-assembled proteins, but the rules that govern how conformationally defective proteins in the secretory pathway are selected from the structurally and topologically diverse constellation of correctly folded membrane and secretory proteins for efficient degradation by cytosolic proteasomes is not well understood. Here, we combine parallel pooled genome-wide CRISPR-Cas9 forward genetic screening with a highly quantitative and sensitive protein turnover assay to discover a previously undescribed collaboration between membrane-embedded cytoplasmic ubiquitin E3 ligases to conjugate heterotypic branched or mixed ubiquitin (Ub) chains on substrates of endoplasmic-reticulum-associated degradation (ERAD). These findings demonstrate that parallel CRISPR analysis can be used to deconvolve highly complex cell biological processes and identify new biochemical pathways in protein quality control.

Proteomic analysis of monolayer-integrated proteins on lipid droplets identifies amphipathic interfacial α-helical membrane anchors.

Despite not spanning phospholipid bilayers, monotopic integral proteins (MIPs) play critical roles in organizing biochemical reactions on membrane surfaces. Defining the structural basis by which these proteins are anchored to membranes has been hampered by the paucity of unambiguously identified MIPs and a lack of computational tools that accurately distinguish monolayer-integrating motifs from bilayer-spanning transmembrane domains (TMDs). We used quantitative proteomics and statistical modeling to identify 87 high-confidence candidate MIPs in lipid droplets, including 21 proteins with predicted TMDs that cannot be accommodated in these monolayer-enveloped organelles. Systematic cysteine-scanning mutagenesis showed the predicted TMD of one candidate MIP, DHRS3, to be a partially buried amphipathic α-helix in both lipid droplet monolayers and the cytoplasmic leaflet of endoplasmic reticulum membrane bilayers. Coarse-grained molecular dynamics simulations support these observations, suggesting that this helix is most stable at the solvent-membrane interface. The simulations also predicted similar interfacial amphipathic helices when applied to seven additional MIPs from our dataset. Our findings suggest that interfacial helices may be a common motif by which MIPs are integrated into membranes, and provide high-throughput methods to identify and study MIPs.

Redundant and Antagonistic Roles of XTP3B and OS9 in Decoding Glycan and Non-glycan Degrons in ER-Associated Degradation.

Glycoproteins engaged in unproductive folding in the ER are marked for degradation by a signal generated by progressive demannosylation of substrate N-glycans that is decoded by ER lectins, but how the two lectins, OS9 and XTP3B, contribute to non-glycosylated protein triage is unknown. We generated cell lines with homozygous deletions of both lectins individually and in combination. We found that OS9 and XTP3B redundantly promote glycoprotein degradation and stabilize the SEL1L/HRD1 dislocon complex, that XTP3B profoundly inhibits the degradation of non-glycosylated proteins, and that OS9 antagonizes this inhibition. The relative expression of OS9 and XTP3B and the distribution of glycan and non-glycan degrons within the same protein contribute to the fidelity and processivity of glycoprotein triage and, therefore, determine the fates of newly synthesized proteins in the early secretory pathway.

Prion-Like Characteristics of Polyglutamine-Containing Proteins.

Transmissible spongiform encephalopathies are infectious neurodegenerative diseases caused by the conversion of prion protein (PrP) into a self-replicating conformation that spreads via templated conversion of natively folded PrP molecules within or between cells. Recent studies provide compelling evidence that prion-like behavior is a general property of most protein aggregates associated with neurodegenerative diseases. Many of these disorders are associated with spontaneous protein aggregation, but genetic mutations can increase the aggregation propensity of specific proteins, including expansion of polyglutamine (polyQ) tracts, which is causative of nine inherited neurodegenerative diseases. Aggregates formed by polyQ-expanded huntingtin (Htt) in Huntington's disease can transfer between cells and seed the aggregation of cytoplasmic wild-type Htt in a prion-like manner. Additionally, prion-like properties of glutamine-rich proteins underlie nonpathological processes in yeast and higher eukaryotes. Here, we review current evidence supporting prion-like characteristics of polyQ and glutamine-rich proteins.

Characterization of protein complexes of the endoplasmic reticulum-associated degradation E3 ubiquitin ligase Hrd1.

Hrd1 is the core structural component of a large endoplasmic reticulum membrane-embedded protein complex that coordinates the destruction of folding-defective proteins in the early secretory pathway. Defining the composition, dynamics, and ultimately, the structure of the Hrd1 complex is a crucial step in understanding the molecular basis of glycoprotein quality control but has been hampered by the lack of suitable techniques to interrogate this complex under native conditions. In this study we used genome editing to generate clonal HEK293 (Hrd1.KI) cells harboring a homozygous insertion of a small tandem affinity tag knocked into the endogenous Hrd1 locus. We found that steady-state levels of tagged Hrd1 in these cells are indistinguishable from those of Hrd1 in unmodified cells and that the tagged variant is functional in supporting the degradation of well characterized luminal and membrane substrates. Analysis of detergent-solubilized Hrd1.KI cells indicates that the composition and stoichiometry of Hrd1 complexes are strongly influenced by Hrd1 expression levels. Analysis of affinity-captured Hrd1 complexes from these cells by size-exclusion chromatography, immunodepletion, and absolute quantification mass spectrometry identified two major high-molecular-mass complexes with distinct sets of interacting proteins and variable stoichiometries, suggesting a hitherto unrecognized heterogeneity in the functional units of Hrd1-mediated protein degradation.

Ubiquitin Accumulation on Disease Associated Protein Aggregates Is Correlated with Nuclear Ubiquitin Depletion, Histone De-Ubiquitination and Impaired DNA Damage Response.

Deposition of ubiquitin conjugates on inclusion bodies composed of protein aggregates is a definitive cytopathological hallmark of neurodegenerative diseases. We show that accumulation of ubiquitin on polyQ IB, associated with Huntington's disease, is correlated with extensive depletion of nuclear ubiquitin and histone de-ubiquitination. Histone ubiquitination plays major roles in chromatin regulation and DNA repair. Accordingly, we observe that cells expressing IB fail to respond to radiomimetic DNA damage, to induce gamma-H2AX phosphorylation and to recruit 53BP1 to damaged foci. Interestingly ubiquitin depletion, histone de-ubiquitination and impaired DNA damage response are not restricted to PolyQ aggregates and are associated with artificial aggregating luciferase mutants. The longevity of brain neurons depends on their capacity to respond to and repair extensive ongoing DNA damage. Impaired DNA damage response, even modest one, could thus lead to premature neuron aging and mortality.