A single-stranded based library preparation method for virome characterization.

BACKGROUND: The gut virome is an integral component of the gut microbiome, playing a crucial role in maintaining gut health. However, accurately depicting the entire gut virome is challenging due to the inherent diversity of genome types (dsDNA, ssDNA, dsRNA, and ssRNA) and topologies (linear, circular, or fragments), with subsequently biases associated with current sequencing library preparation methods. To overcome these problems and improve reproducibility and comparability across studies, universal or standardized virome sequencing library construction methods are highly needed in the gut virome study. RESULTS: We repurposed the ligation-based single-stranded library (SSLR) preparation method for virome studies. We demonstrate that the SSLR method exhibits exceptional efficiency in quantifying viral DNA genomes (both dsDNA and ssDNA) and outperforms existing double-stranded (Nextera) and single-stranded (xGen, MDA + Nextera) library preparation approaches in terms of minimal amplification bias, evenness of coverage, and integrity of assembling viral genomes. The SSLR method can be utilized for the simultaneous library preparation of both DNA and RNA viral genomes. Furthermore, the SSLR method showed its ability to capture highly modified phage genomes, which were often lost using other library preparation approaches. CONCLUSION: We introduce and improve a fast, simple, and efficient ligation-based single-stranded DNA library preparation for gut virome study. This method is compatible with Illumina sequencing platforms and only requires ligation reagents within 3-h library preparation, which is similar or even better than the advanced library preparation method (xGen). We hope this method can be further optimized, validated, and widely used to make gut virome study more comparable and reproducible. Video Abstract.

A novel genus of Pectobacterium bacteriophages display broad host range by targeting several species of Danish soft rot isolates.

The bacterial diseases black leg and soft rot in potatoes cause heavy losses of potatoes worldwide. Bacteria within the genus Pectobacteriaceae are the causative agents of black leg and soft rot. The use of antibiotics in agriculture is heavily regulated and no other effective treatment currently exists, but bacteriophages (phages) have shown promise as potential biocontrol agents. In this study we isolated soft rot bacteria from potato tubers and plant tissue displaying soft rot or black leg symptoms collected in Danish fields. We then used the isolated bacterial strains as hosts for phage isolation. Using organic waste, we isolated phages targeting different species within Pectobacterium. Here we focus on seven of these phages representing a new genus primarily targeting P. brasiliense; phage Ymer, Amona, Sabo, Abuela, Koroua, Taid and Pappous. TEM image of phage Ymer showed siphovirus morphotype, and the proposed Ymer genus belongs to the class Caudoviricetes, with double-stranded DNA genomes varying from 39 kb to 43 kb. In silico host range prediction using a CRISPR-Cas spacer database suggested both P. brasiliense, P. polaris and P. versatile as natural hosts for phages within the proposed Ymer genus. A following host range experiment, using 47 bacterial isolates from Danish tubers and plants symptomatic with soft rot or black leg disease verified the in silico host range prediction, as the genus as a group were able to infect all three Pectobacterium species. Phages did, however, primarily target P. brasiliense isolates and displayed differences in host range even within the species level. Two of the phages were able to infect two or more Pectobacterium species. Despite no nucleotide similarity with any phages in the NCBI database, the proposed Ymer genus did share some similarity at the protein level, as well as gene synteny, with currently known phages. None of the phages encoded integrases or other genes typically associated with lysogeny. Similarly, no virulence factors nor antimicrobial resistance genes were found, and combined with their ability to infect several soft rot-causing Pectobacterium species from Danish fields, demonstrates their potential as biocontrol agents against soft rot and black leg diseases in potatoes.

Randomised, Placebo-Controlled Investigation of the Impact of Probiotic Consumption on Gut Microbiota Diversity and the Faecal Metabolome in Seniors.

Aging has been associated with a changed composition and function of the gut microbiota (GM). Here, we investigate the effects of the multi-strain probiotic HOWARU® Restore on GM composition and function in seniors. Ninety-eight healthy adult volunteers aged ≥75 years were enrolled in a randomised, double-blinded intervention (NCT02207140), where they received HOWARU Restore (1010 CFU) or the placebo daily for 24 weeks, with 45 volunteers from each group completing the intervention. Questionnaires monitoring the effects on gastro-intestinal discomfort and bowel movements were collected. Faecal samples for GM characterisation (qPCR, 16S rRNA gene amplicon sequencing) and metabolomics (GC-FID, 1H NMR) were collected at the baseline and after 24 weeks. In the probiotic group, self-reported gastro-intestinal discomfort in the form of flatulence was significantly decreased during the intervention. At the baseline, 151 'core species' (present in ≥95% of samples) were identified. Most core species belonged to the Lachnospiraceae and Ruminococcaceae families. Neither alpha diversity nor beta diversity or faecal metabolites was affected by probiotic intake. On the contrary, we observed high intra-individual GM stability, with 'individual' accounting for 72-75% of variation. In conclusion, 24 weeks of HOWARU Restore intake reduced gastro-intestinal discomfort in the form of flatulence in healthy seniors without significantly influencing GM composition or activity.

Insights into the circular: The cryptic plasmidome and its derived antibiotic resistome in the urban water systems.

Plasmids have been a concern in the dissemination and evolution of antibiotic resistance in the environment. In this study, we investigated the total pool of plasmids (plasmidome) and its derived antibiotic resistance genes (ARGs) in different compartments of urban water systems (UWSs) in three European countries representing different antibiotic usage regimes. We applied a direct plasmidome approach using wet-lab methods to enrich circular DNA in the samples, followed by shotgun sequencing and in silico contig circularisation. We identified 9538 novel sequences in a total of 10,942 recovered circular plasmids. Of these, 66 were identified as conjugative, 1896 mobilisable and 8970 non-mobilisable plasmids. The UWSs' plasmidome was dominated by small plasmids (≤10 Kbp) representing a broad diversity of mobility (MOB) types and incompatibility (Inc) groups. A shared collection of plasmids from different countries was detected in all treatment compartments, and plasmids could be source-tracked in the UWSs. More than half of the ARGs-encoding plasmids carried mobility genes for mobilisation/conjugation. The richness and abundance of ARGs-encoding plasmids generally decreased with the flow, while we observed that non-mobilisable ARGs-harbouring plasmids maintained their abundance in the Spanish wastewater treatment plant. Overall, our work unravels that the UWS plasmidome is dominated by cryptic (i.e., non-mobilisable, non-typeable and previously unknown) plasmids. Considering that some of these plasmids carried ARGs, were prevalent across three countries and could persist throughout the UWSs compartments, these results should alarm and call for attention.

Widespread and largely unknown prophage activity, diversity, and function in two genera of wheat phyllosphere bacteria.

Environmental bacteria host an enormous number of prophages, but their diversity and natural functions remain largely elusive. Here, we investigate prophage activity and diversity in 63 Erwinia and Pseudomonas strains isolated from flag leaves of wheat grown in a single field. Introducing and validating Virion Induction Profiling Sequencing (VIP-Seq), we identify and quantify the activity of 120 spontaneously induced prophages, discovering that some phyllosphere bacteria produce more than 108 virions/mL in overnight cultures, with significant induction also observed in planta. Sequence analyses and plaque assays reveal E. aphidicola prophages contribute a majority of intraspecies genetic diversity and divide their bacterial hosts into antagonistic factions engaged in widespread microbial warfare, revealing the importance of prophage-mediated microdiversity. When comparing spontaneously active prophages with predicted prophages we also find insertion sequences are strongly correlated with non-active prophages. In conclusion, we discover widespread and largely unknown prophage diversity and function in phyllosphere bacteria.

Genetic rearrangements in Pseudomonas amygdali pathovar aesculi shape coronatine plasmids.

Plant pathogenic Pseudomonas species use multiple classes of toxins and virulence factors during host infection. The genes encoding these pathogenicity factors are often located on plasmids and other mobile genetic elements, suggesting that they are acquired through horizontal gene transfer to confer an evolutionary advantage for successful adaptation to host infection. However, the genetic rearrangements that have led to mobilization of the pathogenicity genes are not fully understood. In this study, we have sequenced and analyzed the complete genome sequences of four Pseudomonas amygdali pv. aesculi (Pae), which infect European horse chestnut trees (Aesculus hippocastanum) and belong to phylogroup 3 of the P. syringae species complex. The four investigated genomes contain six groups of plasmids that all encode pathogenicity factors. Effector genes were found to be mostly associated with insertion sequence elements, suggesting that virulence genes are generally mobilized and potentially undergo horizontal gene transfer after transfer to a conjugative plasmid. We show that the biosynthetic gene cluster encoding the phytotoxin coronatine was recently transferred from a chromosomal location to a mobilizable plasmid that subsequently formed a co-integrate with a conjugative plasmid.

The impact of storage buffer and storage conditions on fecal samples for bacteriophage infectivity and metavirome analyses.

BACKGROUND: There is an increasing interest in investigating the human gut virome for its influence on the gut bacterial community and its putative influence on the trajectory towards health or disease. Most gut virome studies are based on sequencing of stored fecal samples. However, relatively little is known about how conventional storage buffers and storage conditions affect the infectivity of bacteriophages and influence the downstream metavirome sequencing. RESULTS: We demonstrate that the infectivity and genome recovery rate of different spiked bacteriophages (T4, c2 and Phi X174) are variable and highly dependent on storage buffers. Regardless of the storage temperature and timespan, all tested phages immediately lost 100% (DNA/RNA Shield) or more than 90% (StayRNA and RNAlater) of their infectivity. Generally, in SM buffer at 4 °C phage infectivity was preserved for up to 30 days and phage DNA integrity was maintained for up to 100 days. While in CANVAX, the most effective buffer, all spiked phage genomes were preserved for at least 100 days. Prolonged storage time (500 days) at - 80 °C impacted viral diversity differently in the different buffers. Samples stored in CANVAX or DNA/RNA Shield buffer had the least shifts in metavirome composition, after prolonged storage, but they yielded more contigs classified as "uncharacterised". Moreover, in contrast to the SM buffer, these storage buffers yielded a higher fraction of bacterial DNA in metavirome-sequencing libraries. We demonstrated that the latter was due to inactivation of the DNases employed to remove extra-cellular DNA during virome extraction. The latter could be partly avoided by employing additional washing steps prior to virome extraction. CONCLUSION: Fecal sample storage buffers and storage conditions (time and temperature) strongly influence bacteriophage infectivity and viral composition as determined by plaque assay and metavirome sequencing. The choice of buffer had a larger effect than storage temperature and storage time on the quality of the viral sequences and analyses. Based on these results, we recommend storage of fecal virome samples at in SM buffer at 4 °C for the isolation of viruses and at - 80 °C for metagenomic applications if practically feasible (i.e., access to cold storage). For fecal samples stored in other buffers, samples should be cleared of these buffers before viral extraction and sequencing. Video Abstract.

A novel Queuovirinae lineage of Pseudomonas aeruginosa phages encode dPreQ0 DNA modifications with a single GA motif that provide restriction and CRISPR Cas9 protection in vitro.

Deazaguanine DNA modifications are widespread in phages, particularly in those with pathogenic hosts. Pseudomonas phage iggy substitutes ∼16.5% of its genomic 2'-deoxyguanosine (G) with dPreQ0, and the iggy deazaguanine transglycosylase (DpdA) is unique in having a strict GA target motif, not observed previously. The iggy PreQ0 modification is shown to provide protection against both restriction endonucleases and Cas9 (when present in PAM), thus expanding our understanding of the deazaguanine modification system, its potential, and diversity. Phage iggy represents a new genus of Pseudomonas phages within the Queuovirinae subfamily; which have very little in common with other published phage genomes in terms of nucleotide similarity (<10%) and common proteins (<2%). Interestingly, shared similarity is concentrated in dpdA and preQ0 biosynthesis genes. TEM imaging confirmed a siphovirus morphology with a prolate icosahedral head and a non-contractile flexible tail with one long central tail spike. The observed protective effect of the deazaguanine modification on the iggy DNA may contribute to its broad within-species host range. Phage iggy was isolated on Pseudomonas aeruginosa PAO1, but also infects PDO300, PAK, PA14, as well as 10 of 27 tested environmental isolates and 13 of 20 tested clinical isolates of P. aeruginosa from patients with cystic fibrosis.

Used Nasogastric Feeding Tubes from Neonates Contain Infant-Specific Bacterial Profiles.

Nasogastric feeding tubes (NG-tubes) from neonates contain potentially pathogenic bacteria. Using culture-based techniques, we have previously determined that the usage duration of NG-tubes did not impact the colonization of the nasogastric tubes. In the present study, we performed 16S rRNA gene amplicon sequencing to evaluate the microbial profile of 94 used nasogastric tubes collected from a single neonatal intensive care unit. Using culture-based whole genome sequencing, we as-sessed whether the same strain persisted in NG-tubes collected from the same neonate across different time-points. We found that the most commonly occurring Gram-negative bacteria were Enterobacteriaceae, Klebsiella and Serratia, while the most common Gram-positive bacteria were staphylococci and streptococci. The microbiota of the NG-feeding tube was overall infant-specific, rather than dependent on the duration of use. Furthermore, we determined that reoccurring species from the individual infant represented the same strain and that several strains were common for more than one infant. Our findings indicate that bacterial profiles found in NG-tubes of neonates are host-specific, not dependent on the duration of use and strongly influenced by the environment.

Four novel Curtobacterium phages isolated from environmental samples.

Despite Curtobacterium spp. often being associated with the plant phyllosphere, i.e., the areal region of different plant species, only one phage targeting a member of the genus Curtobacterium has been isolated so far. In this study, we isolated four novel plaque-forming Curtobacterium phages, Reje, Penoan, Parvaparticeps, and Pize, with two novel Curtobacterium strains as propagation hosts. Based on the low nucleotide intergenomic similarity (<32.4%) between these four phages and any phage with a genome sequence in the NCBI database, we propose the establishment of the four genera, "Rejevirus", "Pizevirus", "Penoanvirus", and "Parvaparticepsvirus", all in the class of Caudoviricetes.

Three novel Erwinia billingiae phages isolated from organic waste represent three new genera.

Despite the ecological significance of viral communities, phages remain insufficiently studied. Current genomic databases lack high-quality phage genome sequences linked to specific bacteria. Bacteria of the genus Erwinia are known to colonize the phyllosphere of plants, both as commensals and as pathogens. We isolated three Erwinia billingiae phages-Zoomie, Pecta, and Snitter-from organic household waste. Based on sequence similarity to their closest relatives, we propose that they represent three new genera: "Pectavirus" within the family Zobellviridae, "Snittervirus" in the subfamily Tempevirinae, family Drexlerviridae, and "Zoomievirus" within the family Autographiviridae, which, together with the genus Limelightvirus, may constitute a new subfamily.

CRISPR-Cas provides limited phage immunity to a prevalent gut bacterium in gnotobiotic mice.

Many bacteria and archaea harbor the adaptive CRISPR-Cas system, which stores small nucleotide fragments from previous invasions of nucleic acids via viruses or plasmids. This molecular archive blocks further invaders carrying identical or similar nucleotide sequences. However, few of these systems have been confirmed experimentally to be active in gut bacteria. Here, we demonstrate experimentally that the type I-C CRISPR-Cas system of the prevalent gut bacterium Eggerthella lenta can specifically target and cleave foreign DNA in vitro by using a plasmid transformation assay. We also show that the CRISPR-Cas system acquires new immunities (spacers) from the genome of a virulent E. lenta phage using traditional phage assays in vitro but also in vivo using gnotobiotic (GB) mice. Both high phage titer and an increased number of spacer acquisition events were observed when E. lenta was exposed to a low multiplicity of infection in vitro, and three phage genes were found to contain protospacer hotspots. Fewer new spacer acquisitions were detected in vivo than in vitro. Longitudinal analysis of phage-bacteria interactions showed sustained coexistence in the gut of GB mice, with phage abundance being approximately one log higher than the bacteria. Our findings show that while the type I-C CRISPR-Cas system is active in vitro and in vivo, a highly virulent phage in vitro was still able to co-exist with its bacterial host in vivo. Taken altogether, our results suggest that the CRISPR-Cas defense system of E. lenta provides only partial immunity in the gut.

Complete Genome Sequences of Three Lactiplantibacillus plantarum Strains Isolated from Traditional Iranian Raw Milk Motal Cheese.

The complete genome sequences, as determined by a combination of short- and long-read sequencing, of three Lactiplantibacillus plantarum strains (M8, M17, and M19) that were isolated from Iranian motal cheese are reported. The genome sizes were estimated to be 3.3, 3.3, and 3.5 Mbp, respectively, with GC contents of approximately 44.5%.

Detection of nucleotide modifications in bacteria and bacteriophages: Strengths and limitations of current technologies and software.

RNA and DNA modifications occur in eukaryotes and prokaryotes, as well as in their viruses, and serve a wide range of functions, from gene regulation to nucleic acid protection. Although the first nucleotide modification was discovered almost 100 years ago, new and unusual modifications are still being described. Nucleotide modifications have also received more attention lately because of their increased significance, but also because new sequencing approaches have eased their detection. Chiefly, third generation sequencing platforms PacBio and Nanopore offer direct detection of modified bases by measuring deviations of the signals. These unusual modifications are especially prevalent in bacteriophage genomes, the viruses of bacteria, where they mostly appear to protect DNA against degradation from host nucleases. In this Opinion article, we highlight and discuss current approaches to detect nucleotide modifications, including hardwares and softwares, and look onward to future applications, especially for studying unusual, rare, or complex genome modifications in bacteriophages. The ability to distinguish between several types of nucleotide modifications may even shed new light on metagenomic studies.

Marked gut microbiota dysbiosis and increased imidazole propionate are associated with a NASH Göttingen Minipig model.

BACKGROUND: Gut microbiota dysbiosis is associated with the development of non-alcoholic steatohepatitis (NASH) through modulation of gut barrier, inflammation, lipid metabolism, bile acid signaling and short-chain fatty acid production. The aim of this study was to describe the impact of a choline-deficient amino acid defined high fat diet (CDAHFD) on the gut microbiota in a male Göttingen Minipig model and on selected pathways implicated in the development of NASH. RESULTS: Eight weeks of CDAHFD resulted in a significantly altered colon microbiota mainly driven by the bacterial families Lachnospiraceae and Enterobacteriaceae, being decreased and increased in relative abundance, respectively. Metabolomics analysis revealed that CDAHFD decreased colon content of short-chain fatty acid and increased colonic pH. In addition, serum levels of the microbially produced metabolite imidazole propionate were significantly elevated as a consequence of CDAHFD feeding. Hepatic gene expression analysis showed upregulation of mechanistic target of rapamycin (mTOR) and Ras Homolog, MTORC1 binding in addition to downregulation of insulin receptor substrate 1, insulin receptor substrate 2 and the glucagon receptor in CDAHFD fed minipigs. Further, the consequences of CDAHFD feeding were associated with increased levels of circulating cholesterol, bile acids, and glucagon but not total amino acids. CONCLUSIONS: Our results indicate imidazole propionate as a new potentially relevant factor in relation to NASH and discuss the possible implication of gut microbiota dysbiosis in the development of NASH. In addition, the study emphasizes the need for considering the gut microbiota and its products when developing translational animal models for NASH.

Salmonella phage akira, infecting selected Salmonella enterica Enteritidis and Typhimurium strains, represents a new lineage of bacteriophages.

Some serovars of Salmonella can cause life-threatening diarrhoeal diseases and bacteriemia. The emergence of multidrug-resistant strains has led to a need for alternative treatments such as phage therapy, which requires available, well-described, diverse, and suitable phages. Phage akira was found to lyse 19 out of 32 Salmonella enterica serovars and farm isolates tested, although plaque formation was observed with only two S. Enteritidis and one S. Typhimurium strain. Phage akira encodes anti-defence genes against type 1 R-M systems, is distinct (<65% nucleotide sequence identity) from related phages and has siphovirus morphology. We propose that akira represents a new genus in the class Caudoviricetes.

Donor-dependent fecal microbiota transplantation efficacy against necrotizing enterocolitis in preterm pigs.

The development of necrotizing enterocolitis (NEC), a life-threatening inflammatory bowel disease affecting preterm infants, is connected with gut microbiota dysbiosis. Using preterm piglets as a model for preterm infants we recently showed that fecal microbiota transplantation (FMT) from healthy suckling piglet donors to newborn preterm piglets decreased the NEC risk. However, in a follow-up study using donor stool from piglets recruited from another farm, this finding could not be replicated. This allowed us to study donor-recipient microbiota dynamics in a controlled model system with a clear difference in NEC phenotype. Preterm piglets (n = 38) were randomly allocated to receive control saline (CON), or rectal FMT using either the ineffective (FMT1) or the effective donor stool (FMT2). All animals were followed for four days before necropsy and gut pathological evaluation. Donor and recipient colonic gut microbiota (GM) were analyzed by 16 S rRNA gene amplicon sequencing and shotgun metagenomics. As expected, only FMT2 recipients were protected against NEC. Both FMT groups had shifted GM composition relative to CON, but FMT2 recipients had a higher lactobacilli relative abundance compared to FMT1. Limosilactobacillus reuteri and Lactobacillus crispatus strains of FMT recipients showed high phylogenetic similarity with their respective donors, indicating engraftment. Moreover, the FMT2 group had a higher lactobacilli replication rate and harbored specific glycosaminoglycan-degrading Bacteroides. In conclusion, subtle species-level donor differences translate to major changes in engraftment dynamics and the ability to prevent NEC. This could have implications for proper donor selection in future FMT trials for NEC prevention.

Bacteriophages Roam the Wheat Phyllosphere.

The phyllosphere microbiome plays an important role in plant fitness. Recently, bacteriophages have been shown to play a role in shaping the bacterial community composition of the phyllosphere. However, no studies on the diversity and abundance of phyllosphere bacteriophage communities have been carried out until now. In this study, we extracted, sequenced, and characterized the dsDNA and ssDNA viral community from a phyllosphere for the first time. We sampled leaves from winter wheat (Triticum aestivum), where we identified a total of 876 virus operational taxonomic units (vOTUs), mostly predicted to be bacteriophages with a lytic lifestyle. Remarkably, 848 of these vOTUs corresponded to new viral species, and we estimated a minimum of 2.0 × 106 viral particles per leaf. These results suggest that the wheat phyllosphere harbors a large and active community of novel bacterial viruses. Phylloviruses have potential applications as biocontrol agents against phytopathogenic bacteria or as microbiome modulators to increase plant growth-promoting bacteria.

Fecal filtrate transplantation protects against necrotizing enterocolitis.

Necrotizing enterocolitis (NEC) is a life-threatening gastrointestinal disorder afflicting preterm infants, which is currently unpreventable. Fecal microbiota transplantation (FMT) is a promising preventive therapy, but the transfer of pathogenic microbes or toxic compounds raise concern. Removal of bacteria from donor feces by micropore filtering may reduce this risk of bacterial infection, while residual bacteriophages could maintain the NEC-preventive effects. We aimed to assess preclinical efficacy and safety of fecal filtrate transplantation (FFT). Using fecal material from healthy suckling piglets, we compared rectal FMT administration (FMT, n = 16) with cognate FFT by either rectal (FFTr, n = 14) or oro-gastric administration (FFTo, n = 13) and saline (CON, n = 16) in preterm, cesarean-delivered piglets as models for preterm infants. We assessed gut pathology and analyzed mucosal and luminal bacterial and viral composition using 16S rRNA gene amplicon and meta-virome sequencing. Finally, we used isolated ileal mucosa, coupled with RNA-Seq, to gauge the host response to the different treatments. Oro-gastric FFT completely prevented NEC, which was confirmed by microscopy, whereas FMT did not perform better than control. Oro-gastric FFT increased viral diversity and reduced Proteobacteria relative abundance in the ileal mucosa relative to control. An induction of mucosal immunity was observed in response to FMT but not FFT. As preterm infants are extremely vulnerable to infections, rational NEC-preventive strategies need incontestable safety profiles. We show in a clinically relevant animal model that FFT, as opposed to FMT, efficiently prevents NEC without any recognizable side effects.

The phytonutrient cinnamaldehyde limits intestinal inflammation and enteric parasite infection.

Phytonutrients such as cinnamaldehyde (CA) have been studied for their effects on metabolic diseases, but their influence on mucosal inflammation and immunity to enteric infection are not well documented. Here, we show that consumption of CA in mice significantly down-regulates transcriptional pathways connected to inflammation in the small intestine, and alters T-cell populations in mesenteric lymph nodes. During infection with the enteric helminth Heligomosomoides polygyrus, CA treatment attenuated infection-induced changes in biological pathways connected to cell cycle and mitotic activity, and tended to reduce worm burdens. Mechanistically, CA did not appear to exert activity through a prebiotic effect, as CA treatment did not significantly change the composition of the gut microbiota. Instead, in vitro experiments showed that CA directly induced xenobiotic metabolizing pathways in intestinal epithelial cells and suppressed endotoxin-induced inflammatory responses in macrophages. Collectively, our results show that CA down-regulates inflammatory pathways in the intestinal mucosa and can limit the pathological response to enteric infection. These properties appear to be largely independent of the gut microbiota, and instead connected to the ability of CA to induce antioxidant pathways in intestinal cells. Our results encourage further investigation into the use of CA and related phytonutrients as functional food components to promote intestinal health in humans and animals.