Sesamin Exerts an Antioxidative Effect by Activating the Nrf2 Transcription Factor in the Glial Cells of the Central Nervous System in Drosophila Larvae.

Sesame seeds are abundant in sesamin, which exerts health-promoting effects such as extending the lifespan of adult Drosophila and suppressing oxidative stress by activating the Nrf2 transcription factor. Here, we investigated whether sesamin activated Nrf2 in larval tissues and induced the expression of Nrf2 target genes. In the sesamin-fed larvae, Nrf2 was activated in the central nervous system (CNS), gut, and salivary glands. The ectopic expression of Keap1 in glial cells inhibited sesamin-induced Nrf2 activation in the whole CNS more than in the neurons, indicating that sesamin activates Nrf2 in glia efficiently. We labeled the astrocytes as well as cortex and surface glia with fluorescence to identify the glial cell types in which Nrf2 was activated; we observed their activation in both cell types. These data suggest that sesamin may stimulate the expression of antioxidative genes in glial cells. Among the 17 candidate Nrf2 targets, the mRNA levels of Cyp6a2 and Cyp6g1 in cytochrome P450 were elevated in the CNS, gut, and salivary glands of the sesamin-fed larvae. However, this elevation did not lead to resistance against imidacloprid, which is detoxified by these enzymes. Our results suggest that sesamin may exert similar health-promoting effects on the human CNS and digestive tissues.

Cytotoxin-mediated silk gland organ dysfunction diverts resources to enhance silkworm fecundity by potentiating nutrient-sensing IIS/TOR pathways.

Energy reserves, primarily stored in the insect's fat body, are essential for physiological processes such as reproduction and cocoon formation. However, whether these processes are mutually constraining is unknown. Here, we showed that cocoon-free silkworms accumulate amino acid constituents of silk proteins in the hemolymph and maintain lipid and sugar reserves in the pupal fat body by repressing the expression of sericin and fibroin genes in the middle and posterior silk glands, respectively, via butterfly pierisin-1A catalytic domain expression. This, in turn, upregulates insulin/insulin-like signaling and target of rapamycin (IIS/TOR) signaling, which enhances vitellogenesis and accelerates ovarian development, thus contributing to increased fecundity. The impacts of semi-starvation on fecundity and egg hatchability were also less pronounced in cocoon-free silkworms compared with wildtype silkworms. These data uncover the resource allocation trade-off between cocoon formation and fecundity and demonstrate that nutritional signaling plays a role in regulating silkworm reproduction.

A Bioengineering Approach for the Development of Fibroblast Growth Factor-7-Functionalized Sericin Biomaterial Applicable for the Cultivation of Keratinocytes.

Growth factors, including fibroblast growth factor-7 (FGF-7), are a group of proteins that stimulate various cellular processes and are often used with carriers to prevent the rapid loss of their activities. Sericin with great biocompatibility has been investigated as a proteinaceous carrier to enhance the stability of incorporated proteins. The difficulties in obtaining intact sericin from silkworm cocoons and the handling of growth factors with poor stability necessitate an efficient technique to incorporate the protein into a sericin-based biomaterial. Here, we report the generation of a transgenic silkworm line simultaneously expressing and incorporating FGF-7 into cocoon shells containing almost exclusively sericin. Growth-factor-functionalized sericin cocoon shells requiring simple lyophilization and pulverization processes were successfully used to induce the proliferation and migration of keratinocytes. Moreover, FGF-7 incorporated into sericin-cocoon powder exhibited remarkable stability, with more than 70% of bioactivity being retained after being stored as a suspension at 25 °C for 3 months. Transgenic sericin-cocoon powder was used to continuously supply biologically active FGF-7 to generate a three-dimensionally cultured keratinocyte model in vitro. The outcomes of this study propound a feasible approach to producing cytokine-functionalized sericin materials that are ready to use for cell cultivation.

Development of a cypovirus protein microcrystal-encapsulated Bacillus thuringiensis UV-tolerant and mosquitocidal δ-endotoxin.

The δ-endotoxin Cry4Aa from Bacillus thuringiensis israelensis (Bti) has insecticidal characteristics specific to insects of the order Diptera. Although Cry4Aa has shown potential as an effective proteinaceous pesticide against mosquitoes, it has an ultraviolet (UV)-intolerant property that limits its outdoor use. Our previous research showed that protein microcrystal polyhedra from Bombyx mori cypovirus can encapsulate diverse foreign proteins and maintain long-term protein activity under hostile environmental conditions, including UV irradiation. In this study, we report the development of polyhedra encapsulating the Cry4Aa insecticidal activity domain by using a modified baculovirus expression system. We confirmed the oral intake of recombinant polyhedra introduced into the experimental environment by the larvae of a mosquito, Aedes albopictus, and delivery of encapsulated proteins into the digestive tract. The polyhedra encapsulating partial Cry4Aa showed mosquito larvicidal activity during incubation of larvae with 50% lethal-dose value of 23.717×104 cubes for 10 Aedes albopictus larvae in 1 ml water. In addition, polyhedra showed a specific property to reduce the impact of UV-C irradiation on the activity of encapsulated partial Cry4Aa, thus demonstrating the effectiveness of encapsulating Bti δ-endotoxins inside polyhedra to increase the availability of proteinaceous pesticides for outdoor use for mosquito control.

Bioengineered Silkworm for Producing Cocoons with High Fibroin Content for Regenerated Fibroin Biomaterial-Based Applications.

Silk fibroin exhibits high biocompatibility and biodegradability, making it a versatile biomaterial for medical applications. However, contaminated silkworm-derived substances in remnant sericin from the filature and degumming process can result in undesired immune reactions and silk allergy, limiting the widespread use of fibroin. Here, we established transgenic silkworms with modified middle silk glands, in which sericin expression was repressed by the ectopic expression of cabbage butterfly-derived cytotoxin pierisin-1A, to produce cocoons composed solely of fibroin. Intact, nondegraded fibroin can be prepared from the transgenic cocoons without the need for sericin removal by the filature and degumming steps that cause fibroin degradation. A wide-angle X-ray diffraction analysis revealed low crystallinity in the transgenic cocoons. However, nondegraded fibroin obtained from transgenic cocoons enabled the formation of fibroin sponges with varying densities by using 1-5% (v/v) alcohol. The effective chondrogenic differentiation of ATDC5 cells was induced following their cultivation on substrates coated with intact fibroin. Our results showed that intact, allergen-free fibroin can be obtained from transgenic cocoons without the need for sericin removal, providing a method to produce fibroin-based materials with high biocompatibility for biomedical uses.

Effects of transgenic silk materials that incorporate FGF-7 protein microcrystals on the proliferation and differentiation of human keratinocytes.

The silk glands of silkworms produce large quantities of fibroin, which is a protein that can be physically processed and used as a biodegradable carrier for cell growth factors in tissue engineering applications. Meanwhile, protein microcrystals known as polyhedra, which are derived from cypovirus 1, have been used as a vehicle to protect and release encapsulated cell growth factors. We report the generation of transgenic silkworms that express recombinant fibroblast growth factor-7 (FGF-7) fused with the polyhedron-encapsulating signal in polyhedra produced in the middle (MSG) and posterior (PSG) silk glands. Immunofluorescence showed that polyhedra from silk glands are associated with FGF-7. The MSG and PSG from transgenic silkworms were processed into fine powdery materials, from which FGF-7 activity was released to stimulate the proliferation of human keratinocyte epidermal cells. Powders from PSGs exhibited higher FGF-7 activity than those from MSGs. Moreover, PSG powder showed a gradual release of FGF-7 activity over a long period and induced keratinocyte proliferation and differentiation in 3D culture to promote the formation of stratified epidermis expressing positive differentiation marker proteins. Our results indicate that powdery materials incorporating the FGF-7-polyhedra microcrystals from silk glands are valuable for developing cell/tissue engineering applications in vivo and in vitro.

New method for immobilising diverse proteins onto cubic micro-protein polyhedrin crystals.

Cypovirus is an insect virus that is encapsulated in stable cubic protein crystals composed of polyhedrin protein produced in virus-infected cells. Molecular technology developed over the last decade is now able to immobilise proteins of interest on polyhedrin crystals. Modified polyhedrin crystals can be used in cell cultures for implantation in animals and vaccines, among other applications. However, this technique does not work for some proteins. Here, we developed and tested an alternative approach for immobilising foreign proteins in polyhedrin crystals using a linker method; diverse proteins, such as fluorescent proteins, enzymes, antibodies, and streptavidin were successfully contained. The immobilised antibodies retained their binding activity on filter paper, implying their potential for new immunochromatography applications. Moreover, this immobilisation method allows enzymes to be collected from one reaction reagent and transferred to another reagent. These results demonstrate the potential of this immobilisation method and the likelihood of expanding the applications of polyhedrin crystals using this approach.

Sustained Neurotrophin Release from Protein Nanoparticles Mediated by Matrix Metalloproteinases Induces the Alignment and Differentiation of Nerve Cells.

The spatial and temporal availability of cytokines, and the microenvironments this creates, is critical to tissue development and homeostasis. Creating concentration gradients in vitro using soluble proteins is challenging as they do not provide a self-sustainable source. To mimic the sustained cytokine secretion seen in vivo from the extracellular matrix (ECM), we encapsulated a cargo protein into insect virus-derived proteins to form nanoparticle co-crystals and studied the release of this cargo protein mediated by matrix metalloproteinase-2 (MMP-2) and MMP-8. Specifically, when nerve growth factor (NGF), a neurotrophin, was encapsulated into nanoparticles, its release was promoted by MMPs secreted by a PC12 neuronal cell line. When these NGF nanoparticles were spotted onto a cover slip to create a uniform circular field, movement and alignment of PC12 cells via their extended axons along the periphery of the NGF nanoparticle field was observed. Neural cell differentiation was confirmed by the expression of specific markers of tau, neurofilament, and GAP-43. Connections between the extended axons and the growth cones were also observed, and expression of connexin 43 was consistent with the formation of gap junctions. Extensions and connection of very fine filopodia occurred between growth cones. Our studies indicate that crystalline protein nanoparticles can be utilized to generate a highly stable cytokine gradient microenvironment that regulates the alignment and differentiation of nerve cells. This technique greatly simplifies the creation of protein concentration gradients and may lead to therapies for neuronal injuries and disease.

Bioengineered silkworms with butterfly cytotoxin-modified silk glands produce sericin cocoons with a utility for a new biomaterial.

Genetically manipulated organisms with dysfunction of specific tissues are crucial for the study of various biological applications and mechanisms. However, the bioengineering of model organisms with tissue-specific dysfunction has not progressed because the challenges of expression of proteins, such as cytotoxins, in living cells of individual organisms need to be overcome first. Here, we report the establishment of a transgenic silkworm (Bombyx mori) with posterior silk glands (PSGs) that was designed to express the cabbage butterfly (Pieris rapae) cytotoxin pierisin-1A (P1A). P1A, a homolog of the apoptosis inducer pierisin-1, had relatively lower DNA ADP ribosyltransferase activity than pierisin-1; it also induced the repression of certain protein synthesis when expressed in B. mori-derived cultured cells. The transgene-derived P1A domain harboring enzymatic activity was successfully expressed in the transgenic silkworm PSGs. The glands showed no apoptosis-related morphological changes; however, an abnormal appearance was evident. The introduced truncated P1A resulted in the dysfunction of PSGs in that they failed to produce the silk protein fibroin. Cocoons generated by the silkworms solely consisted of the glue-like glycoprotein sericin, from which soluble sericin could be prepared to form hydrogels. Embryonic stem cells could be maintained on the hydrogels in an undifferentiated state and proliferated through stimulation by the cytokines introduced into the hydrogels. Thus, bioengineering with targeted P1A expression successfully produced silkworms with a biologically useful trait that has significant application potential.

Cell proliferation by silk gut incorporating FGF-2 protein microcrystals.

Silk gut processed from the silk glands of the silkworm could be an ideal biodegradable carrier for cell growth factors. We previously demonstrated that polyhedra, microcrystals of Cypovirus 1 polyhedrin, can serve as versatile carrier proteins. Here, we report the generation of a transgenic silkworm that expresses polyhedrin together with human basic fibroblast growth factor (FGF-2) in its posterior silk glands to utilize silk gut as a proteinaceous carrier to protect and slowly release active cell growth factors. In the posterior silk glands, polyhedrin formed polyhedral microcrystals, and FGF-2 became encapsulated within the polyhedra due to a polyhedron-immobilization signal. Silk gut powder prepared from posterior silk glands containing polyhedron-encapsulated FGF-2 stimulated the phosphorylation of p44/p42 MAP kinase and induced the proliferation of serum-starved NIH3T3 cells by releasing bioactive FGF-2. Even after a one-week incubation at 25 °C, significantly higher biological activity of FGF-2 was observed for silk gut powder incorporating polyhedron-encapsulated FGF-2 relative to silk gut powder with non-encapsulated FGF-2. Our results demonstrate that posterior silk glands incorporating polyhedron-encapsulated FGF-2 are applicable to the preparation of biodegradable silk gut, which can protect and release FGF-2 that is produced in a virus- and serum-free expression system with significant application potential.

Bombyx mori nucleopolyhedrovirus nucleic acid binding proteins BRO-B and BRO-E associate with host T-cell intracellular antigen 1 homologue BmTRN-1 to influence protein synthesis during infection.

Previous reports have indicated that the Bombyx mori nucleopolyhedrovirus (BmNPV) nucleic acid binding proteins BRO-B and BRO-E are expressed during the early stage of infection and that the BRO family likely supports the regulation of mRNA; however, no study has directly examined the function of BRO family proteins in virus-permissive cells. Here, we show that BRO-B and BRO-E associate with cellular T-cell intracellular antigen 1 homologue (BmTRN-1), a translational regulator, and other cellular translation-related proteins in silkworm cells during viral infection. We created BM-N cells that expressed BRO-B/E to study molecular interactions between BmTRN-1 and BRO-B/E and how they influenced protein synthesis. Fluorescent microscopy revealed that BmTRN-1 was localized in cytoplasmic foci during BmNPV infection. Immunofluorescence studies confirmed that BmTRN-1 and BRO-B/E were colocalized in the amorphous conspicuous cytoplasmic foci. Reporter gene studies revealed that co-expression of BRO-B/E synergistically led to a significant decrease in protein synthesis from a designed transcript carrying the 5'untranslated region of a cellular mRNA with no significant change of transcript abundance. Additionally, RNA interference-mediated knockdown of BmTRN-1 resulted in a marked inhibition of the ability of BRO-B/E to regulate the transcript. These results suggested that the association of BmTRN-1 with BRO-B/E is responsible for the inhibitory regulation of certain mRNAs at the post-transcriptional level and add an additional mechanism for how baculoviruses control protein synthesis during infection.

Polyhedral microcrystals encapsulating bone morphogenetic protein 2 improve healing in the alveolar ridge.

Atelocollagen sponges incorporating polyhedra encapsulating bone morphogenetic protein 2 (BMP-2) were implanted into lateral bone defects in the mandible. Half of the bone defects on the left side were treated with atelocollagen sponges containing 1.8 × 10(7) BMP-2 polyhedra, and half were treated with sponges containing 3.6 × 10(6) BMP-2 polyhedra. As controls, we treated the right-side bone defects in each animal with an atelocollagen sponge containing 5 µg of recombinant human BMP-2 (rhBMP-2) or 1.8 × 10(7) empty polyhedral. After a healing period of six months, whole mandibles were removed for micro-computed tomography (CT) and histological analyses. Micro-CT images showed that more bone had formed at all experimental sites than at control sites. However, the density of the new bone was not significantly higher at sites with an atelocollagen sponge containing BMP-2 polyhedra than at sites with an atelocollagen sponge containing rhBMP-2 or empty polyhedra. Histological examination confirmed that the BMP-2 polyhedra almost entirely replaced the atelocollagen sponges and connected the original bone with the regenerated bone. These results show that the BMP-2 delivery system facilitates the regeneration of new bone in the mandibular alveolar bone ridge and has an advance in the technology of bone regeneration for implant site development.

3D co-cultures of keratinocytes and melanocytes and cytoprotective effects on keratinocytes against reactive oxygen species by insect virus-derived protein microcrystals.

Stable protein microcrystals called polyhedra are produced by certain insect viruses. Cytokines, such as fibroblast growth factors (FGFs), can be immobilized within polyhedra. Here, we investigated three-dimensional (3D) co-cultures of keratinocytes and melanocytes on collagen gel containing FGF-2 and FGF-7 polyhedra. Melanocytes were observed to reside at the base of the 3D cell culture and melanin was also typically observed in the lower layer. The 3D cell culture model with FGF-2 and FGF-7 polyhedra was a useful in vitro model of the epidermis due to effective melanogenesis, proliferation and differentiation of keratinocytes. FGF-7 polyhedra showed a potent cytoprotective effect when keratinocytes were treated with menadione, which is a generator of reactive oxygen species. The cytoprotective effect was activated by the inositol triphosphate kinase-Akt pathway leading to upregulation of the antioxidant enzymes superoxide dismutase and peroxiredoxin 6.

Control of angiogenesis by VEGF and endostatin-encapsulated protein microcrystals and inhibition of tumor angiogenesis.

Encapsulation of cytokines within protein microcrystals (polyhedra) is a promising approach for the stabilization and delivery of therapeutic proteins. Here, we investigate the influence of vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) microcrystals and endostatin microcrystals on angiogenesis. VEGF was successfully encapsulated into microcrystals derived from insect cypovirus with overexpression of protein disulfide bond isomerase. VEGF microcrystals were observed to increase the phosphorylation of p42/p44 MAP kinase and to stimulate the proliferation, migration, and network and tube formation of human umbilical vein endothelial cells (HUVECs). Endostatin was also successfully encapsulated into microcrystals. Endostatin microcrystals showed antiangiogenesis activities and inhibited the migration, and network and tube formation of HUVECs. Local administration of endostatin microcrystals in mice inhibited both angiogenesis and tumor growth with clear significant differences between treatment and control groups. Endostatin microcrystals only affected angiogenesis, but had no significant effect on lymphangiogenesis compared to controls. Local therapy using endostatin microcrystals offers a potential approach to achieve sustained therapeutic release of antiangiogenic molecules for cancer treatment.

Expression of freeze-responsive proteins, Fr10 and Li16, from freeze-tolerant frogs enhances freezing survival of BmN insect cells.

To date, two novel freeze-responsive proteins, Fr10 and Li16, have been discovered in the wood frog, Rana sylvatica, and likely support freezing survival. Although previous studies have established tissue distribution of each protein, there have been no studies that explore their functional consequences in intolerant cells. To assess the ability of Fr10 and Li16 to confer freeze tolerance, we transfected each protein into a freeze-intolerant silkworm cell line (BmN). Selected controls were the transfection of an unrelated protein (CAT) and a no-transfection sample. Li16 and Fr10 showed 1.8 ± 0.1- and 1.7 ± 0.2-fold, respectively, greater survival after freezing at -6°C for 1 h than did transfection controls. To investigate how these novel proteins protect cells from freezing damage, protein structures were predicted from primary amino acid sequences. Analysis of the structures indicated that Fr10 is a secreted protein and may be a new type IV antifreeze protein, whereas Li16 may have intracellular membrane associated functions. This study shows that freezing protection can be provided to intolerant cells by the overexpression of transfected Li16 and Fr10 frog proteins. Results from this study will provide new insights into adapting intolerant cells for medical organ cryoprotection using a natural vertebrate model of tolerance.

Bone regeneration by polyhedral microcrystals from silkworm virus.

Bombyx mori cypovirus is a major pathogen which causes significant losses in silkworm cocoon harvests because the virus particles are embedded in micrometer-sized protein crystals called polyhedra and can remain infectious in harsh environmental conditions for years. But the remarkable stability of polyhedra can be applied on slow-release carriers of cytokines for tissue engineering. Here we show the complete healing in critical-sized bone defects by bone morphogenetic protein-2 (BMP-2) encapsulated polyhedra. Although absorbable collagen sponge (ACS) safely and effectively delivers recombinant human BMP-2 (rhBMP-2) into healing tissue, the current therapeutic regimens release rhBMP-2 at an initially high rate after which the rate declines rapidly. ACS impregnated with BMP-2 polyhedra had enough osteogenic activity to promote complete healing in critical-sized bone defects, but ACS with a high dose of rhBMP-2 showed incomplete bone healing, indicating that polyhedral microcrystals containing BMP-2 promise to advance the state of the art of bone healing.

The use of leukemia inhibitory factor immobilized on virus-derived polyhedra to support the proliferation of mouse embryonic and induced pluripotent stem cells.

Human leukemia inhibitory factor (LIF) was immobilized into insect virus-derived microcrystals (polyhedra) to generate LIF polyhedra (LIF-PH) that can slowly release LIF into embryonic stem (ES) cell culture media and thus maintain ES cells in an undifferentiated state. Assays of the biological activities of LIF-PH indicated that a single addition of LIF-PH to the ES cell culture medium can support the proliferation of mouse ES and induced pluripotent stem (iPS) cells continuously for 14 days, and suggest that LIF-PH can be successfully used in the place of a periodic addition of recombinant LIF to the media every 2-3 days. The release of LIF protein from LIF-PH was determined by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA). Maintenance of undifferentiated state of mouse ES and iPS cells cultured with LIF-PH was determined by the detection of pluripotency-related biomarkers Oct3/4 and stage-specific embryonic antigen-1 (SSEA-1) through immunostaining and measurement of alkaline phosphatase activity. In this paper, we propose a closed culture system for mass production of ES and iPS cells that utilize a slow-releasing agent of LIF.

Structure-based targeting of bioactive proteins into cypovirus polyhedra and application to immobilized cytokines for mammalian cell culture.

Certain insect viruses produce stable infectious micro-crystals called polyhedra which function to protect the virus after the death of infected larvae. Polyhedra form within infected cells and contain numerous virus particles embedded in a crystalline lattice of the viral protein polyhedrin. We have previously demonstrated that the N-terminal 75 amino acids of the Bombx mori cypovirus (BmCPV) turret protein (VP3) can function as a polyhedrin recognition signal leading to the incorporation of foreign proteins into polyhedra. Foreign proteins tagged with the VP3 polyhedrin recognition signal were incorporated into polyhedra by co-expression with polyhedrin in insect cells. We have used this method to encapsulate a wide variety of foreign proteins into polyhedra. The atomic structure of BmCPV polyhedrin showed that the N-terminal H1 alpha-helix of polyhedrin plays a significant role in cross-linking and stabilizing polyhedra. Here we show that the polyhedrin H1-helix can also function as a polyhedrin recognition signal and can be used like the VP3 N-terminal sequence to target foreign proteins into polyhedra. In addition, the two targeting methods can be used together to produce polyhedra containing both EGFP and Discosoma sp. Red Fluorescent Protein (DsRed). The modified polyhedra were imaged using dual-wavelength confocal microscopy showing that the two foreign proteins are uniformly incorporated into polyhedra at similar levels. We have investigated the biological and physiological properties of fibroblast growth factor-2 (FGF-2), FGF-7 and epidermal growth factor (EGF) immobilized on polyhedra with either the H1 or the VP3 tag. Growth factors produced by both methods were functional, inducing the growth of fibroblast cells and keratinocytes. The results demonstrate the utility and flexibility of modified polyhedra for encapsulating and stabilizing bioactive proteins.

Molecular characterization of a TIA-1-like RNA-binding protein in cells derived from the fall armyworm Spodoptera frugiperda (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae).

A complementary DNA encoding a TIA-1-type RNA-binding protein (SfTRN-1) was isolated from cultured cells of the fall armyworm, Spodoptera frugiperda (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae), to characterize its function. The deduced 388-amino acid sequence of SfTRN-1, which possessed three RNA recognition motifs (RRMs) followed by a C-terminal auxiliary domain, showed significant homology with mammalian TIA-1/TIAR and silkworm BmTRN-1, factors important in the metabolism of transcripts. It was found that inhibition of SfTRN-1 gene expression by a transfected oligonucleotide encoding the antisense sequence led to a marked increase in the production of a reporter protein and the amount of reporter transcript in the cultured cells. In addition, overexpression of the recombinant full-length SfTRN-1 open reading frame in the cultured cells led to a decrease in reporter protein production, but the truncated RRM1-3 domain lacking the C-terminal auxiliary domain lost its activity. Analysis using a GFP-fused recombinant protein revealed that, unlike mammalian TIA-1/TIAR, SfTRN-1, most likely shuttling between the nucleus and cytoplasm, had the characteristic of being largely distributed in the cytoplasm, where it perhaps acts to reduce the amount of transcripts, and that RRM1 and RRM3 were related to its nuclear accumulation, but RRM2 to its nuclear export. Furthermore, the posterior half of the auxiliary domain was also found to be related to its nuclear export. This study indicates that respective RRM subdomains of SfTRN-1 play distinct roles important to its subcellular distribution, and it identified unique systems for the distribution and functional regulation of the TIA-1 family in insect cells, ones which are clearly different from those in mammalian cells.

Identification and functional analysis of Relish homologs in the silkworm, Bombyx mori.

Two cDNAs designated BmRelish1 and 2, that encode Relish homologs, were cloned from the silkworm, Bombyx mori. BmRelish1 had an IkappaB-like domain with 5 ankyrin repeats in addition to Rel homology domain (RHD), nuclear localization signal (NLS), and acidic and hydrophobic amino acids (AHAA) rich regions. On the other hand, BmRelish2 lacked the AHAA and ankyrin repeats (ANK). Knockdown of the BmRelish gene in transgenic silkworms resulted in failure of the activation of antimicrobial peptide genes by Escherichia coli, suggesting that BmRelish plays an important role in antimicrobial peptide gene expression. Functional analysis of BmRelish1 and 2 in mbn-2 cells showed that both Relish homologs do not activate promoters of B. mori antimicrobial peptide genes encoding cecropin B1, attacin, lebocin 3 and lebocin 4. However, a gene construct BmRelish1-d2 lacking the ANK strongly activated promoters of these genes. Another gene construct lacking AHAA and ANK failed to activate these genes, suggesting that BmRelish becomes active by removal of the ANK and that the AHAA-rich region is a transactivation domain. BmRelish2 was shown to repress activation of Cecropin B1 gene expression by BmRelish1-d2, suggesting that BmRelish2 plays a role as a dominant negative factor against the BmRelish1 active form. Necessity of kappaB sites of Cecropin B1, Attacin and Lebocin 4 genes for the full activation of these genes by BmRelish1-d2 was confirmed. The requirement of the mandatory kappaB sites for Lebocin 4 gene expression was different between BmRelish1 active form and BmRelA, suggesting differential roles for kappaB sites in antimicrobial peptide gene activation by different transcription factors. The binding of the RHD portion of BmRelish1 fusion protein to the kappaB sites of Cecropin B1 and Attacin genes was also confirmed.