[Prime-Editing Methods and pegRNA Design Programs].

It has been 10 years since CRISPR/Cas technology was applied to edit the genomes of various organisms. Its ability to produce a double-strand break in a DNA region specified by the researcher started a revolution in bioengineering. Later, the Base Editing (BE) method was developed. BE is performed via the formation of single-strand breaks by the mutant form of Cas nuclease (nickase), fused with deaminases and other enzymes. It can be used to promote A ↔ G and C ↔ T transitions, and a C → G transversion. Just over 3 years ago, a new Prime Editing (PE) variant of CRISPR/Cas was invented. Unlike BE, in PE the nickase is fused with reverse transcriptase, capable of building a new DNA chain using the pegRNA template. The pegRNA consists of an elongated guide RNA with an extra sequence at the 3'-end. Prime editing makes it possible to insert the desired mutations into this extra sequence and to carry out any substitutions and indels of bases without the use of special donor DNA. To date, a number of PE variants have been proposed; they are briefly considered in this review with an emphasis on prime editing of plant genomes. Some attention is also paid to pegRNA design programs, as well as evaluation of the efficiency of the editing. Such a variety of PE techniques is due to the opportunities of high-precision introduction of desired changes with a rather low frequency of off-target mutations in the genomes of various organisms. The relatively low efficiency of prime editing inspires researchers to offer new approaches. There is hope that further development of the technology will improve PE enough to take its rightful place among the genome targeting methods that are suitable for any organisms, and will have a positive impact on the agricultural sector, industrial biotechnologies, and medicine.

Identification of new nucleotide sequences of the Glu-B1-1 gene encoding x-type glutenins in bread wheat.

Studies of the genetic base and polymorphism of bread wheat cultivars aimed at identifying alleles of genes associated with high baking and other economically valuable traits seem to be relevant, since bread wheat, along with all representatives of the Triticeae tribe, has a huge genetic potential for creating cultivars with high technological and rheological properties of grain flour. The aim of this study was sequencing and analysis of the nucleotide sequences of the Glu-B1-1 gene, and analysis of the predicted amino acid sequences of its protein product in three cultivars of bread wheat. Thus, in the course of genotyping cultivars and lines of bread wheat for the Glu-B1-1 gene, in the cultivars 'Avesta', 'Leningradka krupnozernaya' and line C-75094, previously undescribed changes in the size of amplifiable regions of the Glu-B1-1 gene for high-molecular weight glutenins were found. Comparative analysis of the nucleotide sequences of these genes with known sequences showed the presence of two deletions in 'Avesta' and C-75094 and the presence of seven single-nucleotide substitutions in 'Leningradka krupnozernaya'. Alignment of the predicted Glu-B1 amino acid sequences of the studied accessions and the standard cultivar carrying the Glu-B1-a allele showed that deletions in the amino acid sequences of 'Avesta' and C-75094 accessions are localized in the central domain of the protein and affect the amount of tri-, hexa-, and nonapeptides, and in 'Leningradka krupnozernaya', a decrease in GQQ and PGQGQQ by one unit was revealed. In addition, substitutions of five amino acids were found in 'Leningradka krupnozernaya'. Thus, we have found previously undescribed deletions and substitutions in the nucleotide sequences of the Glu-B1-1 gene for high-molecular-weight glutenins, which lead to changes in amino acid sequences in functionally important regions, namely, in the central domains of protein molecules. The identified mutations can be used for genotyping bread wheat cultivars.

Genetic polymorphism of high-molecular-weight glutenin subunit loci in bread wheat varieties in the Pre-Ural steppe zone.

High-molecular-weight glutenins play an important role in providing high baking qualities of bread wheat grain. However, breeding bread wheat for this trait is very laborious and, therefore, the genotyping of variety samples according to the allelic composition of high-molecular-weight glutenin genes is of great interest. The aim of the study was to determine the composition of high-molecular-weight glutenin subunits based on the identification of the allelic composition of the Glu-1 genes, as well as to identify the frequency of the Glu-1 alleles in bread wheat cultivars that are in breeding work under the conditions of the Pre-Ural steppe zone (PSZ). We analyzed 26 winter and 22 spring bread wheat varieties from the PSZ and 27 winter and 20 spring varieties from the VIR collection. Genotyping at the Glu-A1 locus showed that the Ax1 subunits are most common in winter varieties, while the predominance of the Ax2* subunits was typical of spring varieties and lines. In the Glu-B1 locus, the predominance of alleles associated with the production of the Bx7 and By9 subunits was revealed for both winter and spring varieties. In the case of the Glu-D1 gene, for all the wheat groups studied, the composition of the Dx5+Dy10 subunits was the most common: in 92.3 % of winter and 68.2 % of spring PSZ accessions and in 80 % of winter and 55 % of spring VIR accessions. The analysis of genotypes showed the presence of 13 different allelic combinations of the Glu-A1, Glu-B1, Glu-D1 genes in the PSZ varieties, and 19 combinations in the VIR varieties. The b b/al/с d allelic combination (Ax2* Вх7+Ву8/8*/9 Dx5+Dy10) turned out to be the most common for the PSZ spring varieties and lines, while for the PSZ winter accessions it was a с d (Ax1 Вх7+By9 Dx5+Dy10); the b с a and b с d genotypes (Ax2* Вх7+Ву9 Dx2+Dy12 and Ax2* Вх7+Ву9 Dx5+Dy10, respectively) occur with equal frequency among the VIR spring accessions; in the group of VIR winter varieties, the combination of the a b/ al d alleles (Ax1 Вх7+Ву8/8* Dx5+Dy10) prevails. The most preferred combination of alleles for baking qualities was found in the spring variety 'Ekaterina' and winter varieties 'Tarasovskaya 97', 'Volzhskaya S3', as well as in lines k-58164, L43510, L43709, L-67, L-83, which are recommended for further breeding programs to improve and preserve baking qualities in the conditions of the Pre-Ural steppe zone.

[Genome Editing in Species of the Tribe Triticeae with the CRISPR/Cas System].

The tribe Triticeae includes important agricultural crops, such as bread wheat, durum wheat, barley, rye, and triticale. Research in the field of reverse genetics and genetic engineering of Triticeae received a new impetus as the CRISPR/Cas genome editing system came into broad use. The review describes and analyzes the data on recent advances in genomic editing of cultivated plants of the tribe Triticeae and tools used in the field. The tools most commonly used for genome editing in Triticeae include the codon-optimized Cas9 gene under the control of the maize ubiquitin gene promoter and guide RNAs under the control of Pol III promoters U6 and U3 in one or more binary vectors. Phosphinothricin and hygromycin resistance genes are used as selectable genes. Agrobacterium-mediated transformation and biolistics are performed to obtain genome-edited plants, and immature embryos are used as explants. Approaches developed to overcome the problem of low regenerative capacity of Triticeae include in planta transformation of shoot apical meristems, transformation of microspores and pollen grains, and the use of haploinductors. Bread wheat and barley were subject to genomic editing in the majority of studies published to date, and durum wheat and triticale were recently used in CRISPR/Cas knockout studies of target genes. Further progress in the development of genome editing of cultivated plants of the tribe Triticeae should be aimed at expanding the range of species and varieties involved and overcoming the problems of low regenerative capacity. This will allow genetic modification of elite varieties, which will be in demand in agricultural production.

[Design of Guide RNA for CRISPR/Cas Plant Genome Editing].

CRISPR/Cas technology of genome editing is a powerful tool for making targeted changes in the DNA of various organisms, including plants. The choice of the precise nucleotide sequence (protospacer) in the gene to be edited is important in the design of guide RNA, which can be carried out by specialized software. We review and compare all the known on-line and off-line resources for guide RNA design, with special attention paid to tools capable of searching for off-target edits sites in plant genomes. The use of Cas12a may be preferable to Cas9. Techniques allowing C→T and G→A base editing without DNA cleavage are discussed along with the basic requirements for the design of effective and highly specific guide RNAs. Ways for improving guide RNA design software are presented. We also discuss the lesser risks of off-target editing in plant genomes as opposed to animal genomes. Examples of edited plant genomes including those that do not lead to the creation of transgenic plants are reviewed.

[The creation of transgenic tobacco plants expressing fragments of the ARGOS and NtEXPA4 genes in antisense orientation].

Transgenic tobacco plants expressing the fragments of the ARGOS and NtEXPA4 genes in antisense orientation have been created. Eleven lines of transgenic plants were investigated and five of them were characterized by a decrease in the sizes of the leaves and flowers as compared to control. Stalk sizes decreased when only the NtEXPA4 gene fragment was used. The organ size of the experimental plants decreased because of a reduction in the level of both cell division and cell expansion. Two lines of transgenic tobacco plants expressing the part of the ARGOS gene in antisense orientation were characterized by a reduction in the level of the NtEXPA1 and NtEXPA4 gene expression.

[Role of the expansin genes NtEXPA1 and NtEXPA4 in the regulation of cell extension during tobacco leaf growth].

The tobacco plant genes NtEXPA1 and NtEXPA4 encode the α-expansin proteins involved in the regulation of cell growth and extension. We examined the levels of expression of these genes in various plant organs and under the effect of exogenous phytohormones. The highest levels of NtEXPA1 expression were registered in the terminal bud and in the young growing leaves and flowers. NtEXPA1 expression ceased once the leaves stopped growing. The NtEXPA4 gene showed a similar expression profile, except for higher levels of mRNA in the leaves. In young leaves located near the terminal bud, high levels of NtEXPA1 and NtEXPA4 are induced by auxins. In the lower leaves, expansin expression is differentially regulated by brassinosteroids, which inhibit NtEXPA1 and upregulate NtEXPA4. We further showed that expression of the transgenic ARGOS-LIKE results in upregulation of NtEXPA1 and a reduction in the NtEXPA4 mRNA. In turn, overexpression of NtEXPA1 resulted in an increased size of the leaves and stems because of the larger size of the individual cells.

[RNA-silencing of anionic peroxidase gene decreases the potato plant resistance to Phytophthora infestans (Mont.) de Bary].

Transformed potato (Solanum tuberosum L.) plants expressing the antisense-fragment of M21334 gene were estimated. In transgenic plants the decrease of anionic isoperoxidase pI - 3.5 activity was detected. So, the data testify that M21334 gene encodes this isoperoxidase. Decrease of lignin accumulation and dramatic decline of resistance of transgenic potato plants to the late blight agent Phytophthora infestans emphasize an importance of isoperoxidase pI - 3.5 in defense reaction against late blight.

[Estradiol inducible and flower-specific expression of ARGOS and ARGOS-LIKE genes in transgenic tobacco plants].

Transgenic tobacco plants expressing Arabidopsis thaliana ARGOS and ARGOS-LIKE genes under the control of the chalcone synthase promoter of Petunia hybrid L., as well as the estradiol inducible XVE system, have been obtained. The part of transgenic plants with flower-specific expression of the target genes was characterized by increased flower size, caused by an increase in cell size and quantity in the case of the ARGOS gene and by a stimulation of cell growth via stretching in the case of the ARGOS-LIKE gene. An enhanced expression level of the NtEXPA1, NtEXPA4 genes encoding expansins, NtEXGT gene encoding endo-xyloglucan transferase, and the AINTEGUMENTA-like gene was detected in the flowers of transgenic tobacco plants. In the case of inducible expression of ARGOS and ARGOS-LIKE genes, an increase in leaf, stem and flower size was revealed in several lines of transgenic plants as compared to control. Expression of the ARGOS gene also affected cell number and size in this case, while the ARGOS-LIKE gene mainly influenced cell size via stretching. Inducible expression of the ARGOS gene in flowers mainly provided an enhanced containment of AINTEGUMENTA-like mRNA, while ARGOS-LIKE gene expression resulted in the activation of NtEXPA1 and NtEXGT genes.

[Effect of constitutive expression of ARGOS-LIKE gene on dimensions of cells and organs of transgenic tobacco plants].

Transgenic tobacco plants that overexpress the ARGOS-LIKE (ARL) gene of Arabidopsis thaliana have been developed. The transgenic plants possessed increased dimensions of leaves and stem, whereas the magnitude of flowers was modified to a lesser degree. The increase in the organ dimensions was a result of stimulation of cell expansion; the cell quantity in the organ was even decreased. Ectopic expression of the ARL gene was promoted in order to increase in the level of mRNA of tobacco expansine NtEXPA5. It has been shown that the ARL gene of A. thaliana can be used to obtain transgenic plants with increased sizes of the leaves and stem.

[Morphological analysis of transgenic tobacco plants expressing the PnEXPA3 gene of black poplar (Populus nigra)].

Transgenic tobacco plants overexpressing the PnEXPA3 gene of black poplar (Populus nigra), which encodes alpha-expansin, were obtained. The transgenic plants were characterized by increased size of epidermic and mesophyll cells of leaves. However, the size of leaves remained normal. Overexpression of the PnEXPA3 gene provided stimulatory effect only on the stem length. Other morphological traits of the transgenic plants remained unchanged.

[Morphological features of transgenic tobacco plants expressing the AINTEGUMENTA gene of rape under control of the Dahlia mosaic virus promoter].

Transgenic tobacco plants expressing the AINTEGUMENTA gene of rape under control of the 35S promoter and the promoter of dahlia mosaic virus were obtained. The transgenic plants were characterized by increase in the length of the leaves, flower sizes, stem height, and weight of seeds; at the same time, the degree of increase was greater in the case of use of the dahlia mosaic virus promoter as a regulator of transcription. Ectopic expression of the AINTEGUMENTA gene promoted prolongation of leaf growth, while sizes of epidermal cells of the leaves remained unchanged.

[Effect of ectopic expression of NtEXPA5 gene on cell size and growth of organs of transgenic tobacco plants].

We obtained transgenic tobacco plants demonstrating overexpression of NtEXPA5 gene that encodes alpha-expansin of Nicotiana tabacum. The transgenic plants were characterized by increased size of leaves and stems. However, size of flowers remained almost unchanged. The increase of organ sizes was induced by cell stretching only. Moreover, the number of cell divisions was even decreased. The obtained data suggest tight interaction between cell stretching regulation and cell division, which together provide the basic mechanism aimed at the controlling of plant organ sizes.

[Ectopic expression of the PnANTL1 and PnANTL2 black poplar genes in transgenic tobacco plants].

Four putative orthologs of the AINTEGUMENTA gene were found in the poplar (Populus trichocarpa) genome. Two of them, which we called PnANTL1 and PnANTL2, were isolated from black poplar (Populus nigra L.) and transgenic tobacco plants were generated on their basis. Tobacco plants that were transgenic for the PnANTL1 gene were characterized by increased leaf length, smaller flower size, and different defects in the development of the corolla and stamens. Tobacco plants that were transgenic for the PnANTL2 gene were characterized by an increased length of leaves and larger flowers. The increase in the leaf size in all transgenic plants was determined by stimulation of cell expansion; the number of cells was even reduced in the case of the PnANTL1 gene. Ectopic expression of the PnANTL1 and PnANTL2 genes promoted an increase in the level of mRNA of some tobacco expansins. The data we obtained demonstrate the involvement of transcription factors of the AP2 subfamily in the regulation of cell expansion.

[Amplification and cloning of dahlia mosaic virus and carnation etched ring virus promoters].

Amplification and cloning of dahlia mosaic virus promoter were carried out for the first time. Sequence analysis showed homology between this promoter and the promoters of other caulimoviruses. In addition, amplification and cloning of the carnation etched ring virus promoter was performed.