A Clinical Study on Urinary Clusterin and Cystatin B in Dogs with Spontaneous Acute Kidney Injury.

Novel biomarkers are needed in diagnosing reliably acute kidney injury (AKI) in dogs and in predicting morbidity and mortality after AKI. Our hypothesis was that two novel tubular biomarkers, urinary clusterin (uClust) and cystatin B (uCysB), are elevated in dogs with AKI of different etiologies. In a prospective, longitudinal observational study, we collected serum and urine samples from 18 dogs with AKI of different severity and of various etiology and from 10 healthy control dogs. Urinary clusterin and uCysB were compared at inclusion between dogs with AKI and healthy controls and remeasured one and three months later. Dogs with AKI had higher initial levels of uClust (median 3593 ng/mL; interquartile range [IQR]; 1489-10,483) and uCysB (554 ng/mL; 29-821) compared to healthy dogs (70 ng/mL; 70-70 and 15 ng/mL; 15-15; p < 0.001, respectively). Initial uCysB were higher in dogs that died during the one-month follow-up period (n = 10) (731 ng/mL; 517-940), compared to survivors (n = 8) (25 ng/mL; 15-417 (p = 0.009). Based on these results, uClust and especially uCysB are promising biomarkers of AKI. Further, they might reflect the severity of tubular injury, which is known to be central to the pathology of AKI.

Retrospective evaluation of 22 dogs with leptospirosis treated with extracorporeal renal replacement therapies (2018-2021).

BACKGROUND: Outcomes of dogs with acute kidney injury secondary to leptospirosis (AKI-L) treated using renal replacement therapies (RRT) are poorly characterized. HYPOTHESIS/OBJECTIVES: Describe survival to discharge, short (≤30 days) and long-term (≥6 months) outcomes of AKI-L dogs receiving RRT and determine if there is a significant difference in maximum blood urea nitrogen (maxBUN), maximum creatinine (maxCr), maximum bilirubin (maxBili) and the number of body systems affected between survivors and non-survivors. ANIMALS: Twenty-two client-owned dogs with AKI-L receiving RRT. METHODS: Retrospective medical record review of dogs with AKI-L that received RRT between 2018 and 2021. RESULTS: Sixteen of 22 (73%) dogs survived to discharge. Of the survivors, 13 (81%) were alive >30 days from discharge and 12 (75%) were alive at 6 months from discharge. Factors significantly higher in non-survivors included number of body systems affected (survivors: 1 (19%), 2 (50%), 3 (25%) and 4 (6%) vs non-survivors: 3 (33.3%), and 4 (66.7%); P = .01) and median maxBili (survivors: 1.9 mg/dL; range, 0.1-41.6 vs non-survivors: 21.0 mg/dL; range, 12.3-38.9; P = .02). There was no significant difference in median maxBUN (survivors: 153.0 mg/dL; range, 67-257 vs non-survivors: 185.5 mg/dL; range, 102-218; P = .44) and median maxCr (survivors: 9.8 mg/dL; range, 6.2-15.9 vs non-survivors: 9.8 mg/dL; range, 8.4-13.5; P = .69) between survivors and non-survivors. CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL IMPORTANCE: Regardless of azotemia severity, dogs with AKI-L receiving RRT have a good survival rate to discharge. The number of body systems affected and hyperbilirubinemia might be associated with worse outcomes.

Irreversible Electroporation Balloon Therapy for Palliative Treatment of Obstructive Urethral Transitional Cell Carcinoma in Dogs.

Progression of transitional cell carcinoma (TCC) in dogs often leads to urinary obstruction. This observational pilot study aimed to evaluate the safety and efficacy of irreversible electroporation (IRE) balloon therapy for the palliative treatment of TCC with partial urethral obstruction. Three client-owned dogs diagnosed with TCC causing partial urethral obstruction were enrolled. After ultrasonographic and cystoscopic examination, IRE pulse protocols were delivered through a balloon catheter device inflated within the urethral lumen. After the procedure, the patients were kept overnight for monitoring and a recheck was planned 28 days later. No complication was observed during the procedure and postprocedural monitoring. After 28 days, one dog had a complete normalization of the urine stream, one dog had stable stranguria, and one dog was presented with a urethral obstruction secondary to progression of the TCC. On recheck ultrasound, one dog had a 38% diminution of the urethral mass diameter whereas the other two dogs had a mass stable in size. IRE balloon therapy seems to be a feasible and apparently safe minimally invasive novel therapy for the palliative treatment of TCC causing urethral obstruction. Further studies are needed to better characterize the safety, efficacy, and outcome of this therapy.

Therapeutic plasma exchange to mitigate flunixin meglumine overdose in a cria.

OBJECTIVE: To describe the use of therapeutic plasma exchange (TPE) in the treatment of flunixin meglumine overdose in a cria. CASE SUMMARY: A 3-day-old alpaca cria was diagnosed with ureteral obstruction and agenesis resulting in severe bilateral hydronephrosis. During hospitalization, the cria inadvertently received a flunixin meglumine overdose of >65 mg/kg. Here, we report the use of lipid emulsion and TPE to mitigate flunixin meglumine toxicosis. TPE appeared to prevent any flunixin-induced kidney or gastrointestinal injury, even in a patient with congenital defects of the urinary tract. NEW INFORMATION PROVIDED: This is the first report of the use of TPE in a cria.

Presumptive malignant transformation of chronic polypoid cystitis into an apical transitional cell carcinoma without BRAF mutation in a young female dog.

A 3-year-old spayed female English Springer Spaniel was presented twice 4 months apart for investigation of hematuria and pollakiuria without urinary tract infection. Both ultrasound examinations identified a stable craniodorsal bladder wall thickening. The first cystoscopic biopsy samples indicated lymphoplasmacytic cystitis and the second polypoid cystitis. The dog was represented 8 months later for recurrent clinical signs despite medical management. Although the ultrasound examination showed stable disease, repeat cystoscopic biopsy identified transitional cell carcinoma (TCC), confirmed on tissue removed by partial cystectomy. No BRAF mutation was ever detected in urine or tissue samples. To our knowledge, this case represents the first report of presumptive malignant transformation of polypoid cystitis into an apical TCC in a dog. Dogs with polypoid cystitis should be followed closely and surgical management considered if rapid resolution is not achieved with medical management.

Subcutaneous ureteral bypass device placement with intraoperative ultrasound guidance, with or without microsurgical ureterotomy, in 24 cats.

OBJECTIVES: The aim of this study was to describe a method of subcutaneous ureteral bypass (SUB) device placement with intraoperative ultrasound guidance, with or without microsurgical ureterotomy, for the treatment of benign ureteral obstruction(s) in cats. A secondary aim was to describe the complications and outcomes in our population, and compare the two groups with and without ureterotomy. METHODS: The medical records of cats with benign ureteral obstruction(s) treated with SUB device placement with intraoperative ultrasound guidance between April 2013 and June 2018 were reviewed. RESULTS: Twenty-four cats with 30 obstructed ureters had a SUB device placement with intraoperative ultrasound guidance in 26 surgeries. A microsurgical ureterotomy was performed in 14/26 surgeries. Median age was 10.07 years (range 4-16.6). Eleven of 24 cats (46%) had a previous history of chronic kidney disease (CKD). All cats, including two patients with minimal pelvic dilation (⩽4 mm), had a successful intrapelvic placement of the SUB device. Median survival time was 1555 days (4.25 years); this was not significantly different between the two groups (P = 0.4494). Stone analysis and bacterial culture, where available for review, revealed calcium oxalate in 12/12 and a negative culture in 6/7. The ureterotomy significantly prolonged the procedure duration (180 vs 125 mins) without significantly decreasing the short- and long-term complications (P = 0.1588 and P = 0.2921, respectively), or the survival time (P = 0.8437). CONCLUSIONS AND RELEVANCE: SUB device placement with intraoperative ultrasound guidance is an effective alternative for the treatment of ureteral obstruction. Ultrasound guidance may be a more accessible option when a trained veterinarian does not have access to fluoroscopy. Microsurgical ureterotomy did not show any advantage and prolonged the anesthesia. Our median survival time emphasizes a good outcome of SUB device placement, even in cats with a previous history of CKD.

Ampicillin pharmacokinetics in azotemic and healthy dogs.

BACKGROUND: Little is known about effects of factors such as kidney disease, affecting ampicillin pharmacokinetics in dogs. OBJECTIVES: Determine the pharmacokinetics of ampicillin after a single intravenous dose in healthy and azotemic dogs. ANIMALS: Nine dogs presenting with acute kidney injury and 10 healthy dogs. METHODS: This was a prospective study. An ampicillin dose of 22.2 mg/kg (mean dose) was administered once intravenously. Blood samples were obtained at timed intervals (just before administration, 1, 2, 4, 12, and 24 hours), analyzed using high-pressure liquid chromatography followed by pharmacokinetic analysis of the plasma drug concentrations. RESULTS: Peak ampicillin concentration (mcg/mL; 97.07 (36.1) vs 21.3 (50.26)), P<.001 (geometric mean (coefficient of variation, CV%)), half-life (hours; 5.86 (56.55) vs 0.97 (115.3)), P<.001) and AUC (h × mcg/mL; 731.04 (83.75) vs 33.57 (53.68)), P<.001) were greater in azotemic dogs than in healthy dogs. Azotemic dogs also had significantly lower clearance (30.06 (84.19) vs 655.03 (53.67); mL/kg h, P < .001) and volume of distribution (253.95 (30.14) vs 916.93 (135.24); mL/kg, P <.001) compared to healthy dogs. CONCLUSION AND CLINICAL IMPORTANCE: Increased drug concentrations and slower clearance of ampicillin in azotemic dogs could have clinical importance in contributing to antibiotic associated morbidity requiring indicating the need to adjust ampicillin dosing in dogs with decreased kidney function.

Hyperammonemia in azotemic cats.

OBJECTIVES: Hyperammonemia occurs in cats with hepatobiliary and nutritional (cobalamin and arginine deficiency) disorders, and has also been documented in four cats with renal azotemia. We hypothesized that in cats with renal azotemia, fasting hyperammonemia would correlate with indices of worsening kidney function, and would be independent of cobalamin, potassium, systemic inflammation or urinary tract infection (UTI) with urease-producing bacteria. METHODS: A fasted blood sample was prospectively collected for ammonia and cobalamin analysis from 18 client-owned cats with renal azotemia (creatinine [Cr] ⩾1.6 mg/dl, urine specific gravity <1.030 or documentation of historical chronic kidney disease [CKD]). Correlations between blood ammonia and selected biochemical parameters were analyzed using Pearson's correlation coefficient. RESULTS: Seven castrated males and 11 spayed females with a median age of 12 years (range 4-19 years) were enrolled. Ten of 18 (56%) cats presented for acute kidney injury (AKI) or acute on chronic kidney disease (AoCKD), and 8/18 (44%) presented for progressive CKD. The median Cr was 5.9 mg/dl (range 1.9-24.7 mg/dl). Hyperammonemia was documented in 4/18 (22%) cats, with a median of 95 µmol/dl (range 85-98 µmol/dl), and all four of these cats were classified as AKI/AoCKD. Blood ammonia concentrations had a significant moderate positive correlation between blood urea nitrogen (BUN) (r = 0.645, P = 0.003), Cr (r = 0.578, P = 0.012) and serum phosphorus (r = 0.714, P = 0.0009) but not with cobalamin, potassium or white blood cell count. No cats had UTIs with urease-producing bacteria. CONCLUSIONS AND RELEVANCE: A correlation exists between blood ammonia and BUN, Cr and phosphorus in cats with renal azotemia. Future studies are warranted in a larger population of cats to determine the true prevalence, etiology and potential therapeutic effect of medical management of hyperammonemia on long-term prognosis in cats with kidney disease.

Canine Incontinence.

Incontinence is a frustrating condition for both pet owners and their veterinarians. Fortunately, most causes are easily diagnosed and most dogs respond to appropriate therapy. This article reviews normal urine storage and voiding, causes of incontinence, typical clinical presentation, diagnostics, and treatment.

ACVIM consensus update on Lyme borreliosis in dogs and cats.

An update of the 2006 American College of Veterinary Internal Medicine (ACVIM) Small Animal Consensus Statement on Lyme Disease in Dogs: Diagnosis, Treatment, and Prevention was presented at the 2016 ACVIM Forum in Denver, CO, followed by panel and audience discussion and a drafted consensus statement distributed online to diplomates for comment. The updated consensus statement is presented below. The consensus statement aims to provide guidance on the diagnosis, treatment, and prevention of Lyme borreliosis in dogs and cats.

Current techniques in peritoneal dialysis.

OBJECTIVE: To provide a current overview of the technique of peritoneal dialysis in dogs and cats. CLINICAL IMPLICATION: Peritoneal dialysis is the process by which water and solutes move between blood in the peritoneal capillaries and fluid (dialysate) instilled into the peritoneal cavity, across the semipermeable membrane of the peritoneum. The primary indication for peritoneal dialysis (PD) in animals is for treatment of renal failure to correct water, solute, and acid-base abnormalities and to remove uremic toxins. SUMMARY: Peritoneal dialysis is a modality of renal replacement therapy commonly used in human medicine for the treatment of chronic kidney disease and end-stage kidney failure. Peritoneal dialysis utilizes the peritoneum as a membrane across which fluids and uremic solutes are exchanged. Dialysate is instilled into the peritoneal cavity and, through the process of diffusion and osmosis, water, toxins, electrolytes, and other small molecules are allowed to equilibrate.

Peritoneal dialysis in veterinary medicine.

Peritoneal dialysis is a modality of renal replacement therapy that is commonly used in human medicine for treatment of chronic kidney disease and end-stage kidney failure. Peritoneal dialysis uses the peritoneum as a membrane across which fluids and uremic solutes are exchanged. In this process, dialysate is instilled into the peritoneal cavity and, through the process of diffusion and osmosis, water, toxins, electrolytes, and other small molecules, are allowed to equilibrate.

Intermittent hemodialysis for small animals.

Hemodialysis is a life-saving medical modality that cleanses the blood using an artificial kidney, called a dialyzer. Hemodialysis uses contact between the patient's blood and the semipermeable membrane of the extracorporeal dialyzer to remove compounds such as blood urea nitrogen, creatinine, electrolytes, minerals, anions, cations, certain drugs and toxins, and excess fluid from the bloodstream. The extracorporeal dialyzer distinguishes hemodialysis from peritoneal dialysis, which uses a patient's peritoneum as the dialysis membrane. There are 2 main types of hemodialysis: intermittent hemodialysis and continuous renal replacement therapy. This article focuses on intermittent hemodialysis for acute and chronic kidney injury.

Serum concentrations of the third component of complement in healthy dogs and dogs with protein-losing nephropathy.

OBJECTIVE: To develop a method for determining the concentration of the third component of complement (C3) in canine serum, to establish a reference range for C3 in healthy dogs, and to evaluate dogs with protein-losing nephropathy (PLN) to determine whether PLN is associated with decreased serum C3 concentrations. ANIMALS: 30 healthy dogs and 49 dogs with PLN. PROCEDURES: Serum samples were obtained from healthy dogs at the time of examination, whereas serum samples were obtained from dogs with PLN at the time of diagnosis. All samples were frozen at -70 degrees C until analyzed. Serum C3 concentrations were determined by use of a sandwich ELISA. Concentrations were expressed as the number of dilutions in which C3 could be detected. RESULTS: C3 was detectable in healthy control dogs (range, 1,920,000 to 15,400,000 dilutions; median, 9,600,000 dilutions). This represented a range of four 2-fold serum dilutions. In addition, C3 was detectable in dogs with PLN (range, 1,460,000 to 30,070,000 dilutions; median, 7,680,000 dilutions), which represented a range of six 2-fold serum dilutions. There was no significant difference in C3 concentrations between the 2 groups. CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE: C3 is a critical part of the immune defense system that has not been extensively examined in veterinary medicine. An ELISA was developed for measuring C3 concentrations, and a reference range for healthy dogs was established. Significant decreases in C3 concentrations were not detected in any dog with PLN. Additional studies will be required to definitively determine the importance of serum C3 concentrations in PLN.

Hypertension in renal disease: diagnosis and treatment.

Hypertension is a common sequela to renal disease in cats and dogs, affecting as many as 61% cats and 93% of dogs, respectively. Undiagnosed and untreated, elevations in blood pressure can have deleterious effects on the brain and heart as well as promote further renal injury. In this article, we discuss the identification of patients at risk for hypertension as well as methods for measuring blood pressure and the treatment of hypertensive patients.