Cholinergic modulation of rearing in rats performing a spatial memory task.

Spatial memory encoding depends in part on cholinergic modulation. How acetylcholine supports spatial memory encoding is not well understood. Prior studies indicate that acetylcholine release is correlated with exploration, including epochs of rearing onto hind legs. Here, to test whether elevated cholinergic tone increases the probability of rearing, we tracked rearing frequency and duration while optogenetically modulating the activity of choline acetyltransferase containing (i.e., acetylcholine producing) neurons of the medial septum in rats performing a spatial working memory task (n = 17 rats). The cholinergic neurons were optogenetically inhibited using halorhodopsin for the duration that rats occupied two of the four open arms during the study phase of an 8-arm radial arm maze win-shift task. Comparing rats' behaviour in the two arm types showed that rearing frequency was not changed, but the average duration of rearing epochs became significantly longer. This effect on rearing was observed during optogenetic inhibition but not during sham inhibition or in rats that received infusions of a fluorescent reporter virus (i.e., without halorhodopsin; n = 6 rats). Optogenetic inhibition of cholinergic neurons during the pretrial waiting phase had no significant effect on rearing, indicating a context-specificity of the observed effects. These results are significant in that they indicate that cholinergic neuron activity in the medial septum is correlated with rearing not because it motivates an exploratory state but because it contributes to the processing of information acquired while rearing.

Cholinergic modulation of rearing in rats performing a spatial memory task.

Spatial memory encoding depends in part on cholinergic modulation. How acetylcholine supports spatial memory encoding is not well understood. Prior studies indicate that acetylcholine release is correlated with exploration, including epochs of rearing onto hind legs. Here, to test whether elevated cholinergic tone increases the probability of rearing, we tracked rearing frequency and duration while optogenetically modulating the activity of choline acetyltransferase containing (i.e., acetylcholine producing) neurons of the medial septum in rats performing a spatial working memory task (n = 17 rats). The cholinergic neurons were optogenetically inhibited using halorhodopsin for the duration that rats occupied two of the four open arms during the study phase of an 8-arm radial arm maze win-shift task. Comparing rats' behavior in the two arm types showed that rearing frequency was not changed but the average duration of rearing epochs became significantly longer. This effect on rearing was observed during optogenetic inhibition but not during sham inhibition or in rats that received infusions of a fluorescent reporter virus (i.e., without halorhodopsin; n = 6 rats). Optogenetic inhibition of cholinergic neurons during the pre-trial waiting phase had no significant effect on rearing, indicating a context-specificity of the observed effects. These results are significant in that they indicate that cholinergic neuron activity in the medial septum is correlated with rearing not because it motivates an exploratory state but because it contributes to the processing of information acquired while rearing.

Hippocampal inactivation during rearing on hind legs impairs spatial memory.

Spatial memory requires an intact hippocampus. Hippocampal function during epochs of locomotion and quiet rest (e.g., grooming and reward consumption) has been the target of extensive study. However, during navigation rats frequently rear up onto their hind legs, and the importance of hippocampal activity during these periods of attentive sampling for spatial memory is unknown. To address this, we tested the necessity of dorsal hippocampal activity during rearing epochs in the study phase of a delayed win-shift task for memory performance in the subsequent test phase. Hippocampal activity was manipulated with closed-loop, bilateral, optogenetic inactivation. Spatial memory accuracy was significantly and selectively reduced when the dorsal hippocampus was inactivated during rearing epochs at encoding. These data show that hippocampal activity during periods of rearing can be important for spatial memory, revealing a novel link between hippocampal function during epochs of rearing and spatial memory.

Dorsal hippocampus not always necessary in a radial arm maze delayed win-shift task.

Spatial working memory is important for foraging and navigating the environment. However, its neural underpinnings remain poorly understood. The hippocampus, known for its spatial coding and involvement in spatial memory, is widely understood to be necessary for spatial working memory when retention intervals increase beyond seconds into minutes. Here, we describe new evidence that the dorsal hippocampus is not always necessary for spatial working memory for retention intervals of 8 min. Rats were trained to perform a delayed spatial win shift radial arm maze task with an 8-min delay between study and test phases. We then tested whether bilateral inactivation of the dorsal hippocampus between the study and test phases impaired behavioral performance at test. Inactivation was achieved through a bilateral infusion of lidocaine. Performance following lidocaine was compared to control trials, in which, sterile phosphate buffered saline (PBS) was infused. Test performance did not differ between the lidocaine and PBS conditions, remaining high in each. To explore the possibility that this insensitivity to inactivation was a result of overtraining, a second cohort of animals received substantially less training prior to the infusions. In this second cohort, lidocaine infusions did significantly impair task performance. These data indicate that successful performance of a spatial win-shift task on the 8-arm maze need not always be hippocampally dependent.

Inactivation of the nucleus reuniens/rhomboid causes a delay-dependent impairment of spatial working memory.

Inactivation of the rodent medial prefrontal cortex (mPFC) and hippocampus or disconnection of the hippocampus from the mPFC produces deficits in spatial working memory tasks. Previous studies have shown that delay length determines the extent to which mPFC and hippocampus functionally interact, with both structures being necessary for tasks with longer delays and either structure being sufficient for tasks with shorter delays. In addition, inactivation of the nucleus reuniens (Re)/rhomboid nucleus (Rh) of the thalamus, which has bidirectional connections with the mPFC and hippocampus, also produces deficits in these tasks. However, it is unknown how delay duration relates to the function of Re/Rh. If Re/Rh are critical in modulating mPFC-hippocampus interactions, inactivation of the RE/Rh should produce a delay-dependent impairment in spatial working memory performance. To investigate this question, groups of rats were trained on one of three different spatial working memory tasks: continuous alternation (CA), delayed alternation with a five-second delay (DA5), or with a thirty-second delay (DA30). The Re/Rh were inactivated with muscimol infusions prior to testing. The results demonstrate that inactivation of RE/Rh produces a deficit only on the two DA tasks, supporting the notion that the Re/Rh is a critical orchestrator of mPFC-HC interactions.

Transient inactivation of the medial prefrontal cortex impairs performance on a working memory-dependent conditional discrimination task.

The rodent medial prefrontal cortex (mPFC) has been implicated in working memory function; lesions and inactivation of this region have been shown to result in impairments in spatial working memory (WM) tasks. Our laboratory has developed a tactile-visual conditional discrimination (CD) task, which uses floor insert cues to signal the correct goal-arm choice in a T maze. This task can be manipulated by altering the floor insert cues to be present throughout the trial (CDSTANDARD) or to be present only at the beginning of the trial (CDWM), thus making the task either WM-independent or WM-dependent, respectively. This ability to manipulate the working memory demand of the task while holding all other task features constant allows us to rule out the possibility that confounding performance variables contribute to the observed impairment. A previous study from our lab showed that mPFC inactivation did not impair performance on CDSTANDARD, confirming that mPFC inactivation does not induce sensorimotor or motivational deficits that could impact task performance. To examine whether mPFC inactivation impairs CDWM, the current study transiently inactivated the mPFC with bilateral microinfusions of muscimol immediately prior to testing on the CDWM task. As predicted, CDWM task performance was significantly impaired during the muscimol-infusion session compared with the control saline-infusion sessions. Together with our previous demonstration that the mPFC in not required for CDSTANDARD, these results not only confirm that the mPFC is crucial for working memory, but also set the stage for using the task-comparison approach to investigate corticolimbic interactions during working memory.