Increased splicing of CXCR3 isoform B (CXCR3B) by impaired NRF2 signaling leads to melanocyte apoptosis in active vitiligo.

Apoptotic melanocytes (MCs) may release neoantigenic epitopes preceding epidermal infiltration by autoreactive CD8+ T cells in early vitiligo. However, the mechanism by which vitiligo MCs are prone to apoptosis under oxidative stress remains elusive. Pro-apoptotic receptor C-X-C motif chemokine receptor 3 isoform B (CXCR3B) is critical for inducing MC apoptosis in the inflammatory microenvironment of lesional vitiligo skin. Here, we show that C-X-C motif chemokine ligand 10 (CXCL10), a functional ligand for CXCR3B, is upregulated in primary dermal fibroblasts and in CD90+ reticular fibroblasts of vitiligo skin. The number of CXCR3B+ MCs was increased in active vitiligo skin compared with healthy skin and stable vitiligo skin. Mechanistically, impaired nuclear factor erythroid 2-related factor 2 (NRF2) signaling in oxidatively stressed MCs leads to the elevated expression of CXCR3B and increased apoptosis. The overexpression of NRF2 prevents MCs from CXCL10-induced apoptosis through upregulation of pro-survival receptor CXCR3 isoform A (CXCR3A). Overall, MCs expressing CXCR3B are more susceptible to apoptosis. Suppressing CXCR3B could be a promising therapeutic approach to extinguish inflammation in vitiligo skin.

Decreased Peripheral Blood Natural Killer Cell Count in Untreated Juvenile Dermatomyositis Is Associated with Muscle Weakness.

Juvenile Dermatomyositis (JDM) is the most common inflammatory myopathy in pediatrics. This study evaluates the role of Natural Killer (NK) cells in Juvenile Dermatomyositis (JDM) pathophysiology. The study included 133 untreated JDM children with an NK cell count evaluation before treatment. NK cell subsets (CD56low/dim vs. CD 56bright) were examined in 9 untreated children. CD56 and perforin were evaluated in situ in six untreated JDM and three orthopedic, pediatric controls. 56% of treatment-naive JDM had reduced circulating NK cell counts, designated "low NK cell". This low NK group had more active muscle disease compared to the normal NK cell group. The percentage of circulating CD56low/dim NK cells was significantly lower in the NK low group than in controls (0.55% vs. 4.6% p < 0.001). Examination of the untreated JDM diagnostic muscle biopsy documented an increased infiltration of CD56 and perforin-positive cells (p = 0.023, p = 0.038, respectively). Treatment-naive JDM with reduced circulating NK cell counts exhibited more muscle weakness and higher levels of serum muscle enzymes. Muscle biopsies from treatment-naive JDM displayed increased NK cell infiltration, with increased CD56 and perforin-positive cells.

Vitiligo: advances in pathophysiology research and treatment development.

The autoimmune condition vitiligo, characterized by skin depigmentation, presents challenges for effective treatment design, with Janus kinase (JAK) inhibitors and other repurposed drugs offering a promising strategy for symptom management. This review explores advantages and shortcomings of current therapies, while presenting the urgent need for further innovative approaches. We emphasize the growing understanding of autoimmune involvement in vitiligo, highlighting several novel treatment avenues including relieving melanocyte stress, preventing dendritic cell activation, halting T cell migration, and suppressing inflammation and autoimmunity. Integrating psychodrama therapy to remediate stress alongside medical interventions marks a holistic approach to enhance patient well-being. The molecular underpinnings of vitiligo care are covered, emphasizing exciting advances revolutionizing vitiligo treatment and improving the quality of life for affected individuals.

Topical antibiotics limit depigmentation in a mouse model of vitiligo.

Oral neomycin administration impacts the gut microbiome and delays vitiligo development in mice, and topical antibiotics may likewise allow the microbiome to preserve skin health and delay depigmentation. Here, we examined the effects of 6-week topical antibiotic treatment on vitiligo-prone pmel-1 mice. Bacitracin, Neosporin, or Vaseline were applied to one denuded flank, while the contralateral flank was treated with Vaseline in all mice. Ventral depigmentation was quantified weekly. We found that topical Neosporin treatment significantly reduced depigmentation and exhibited effects beyond the treated area, while Bacitracin ointment had no effect. Stool samples collected from four representative mice/group during treatment revealed that Neosporin treatment aligned with reduced abundance of the Alistipes genus in the gut, while relevant changes to the skin microbiome at end point were less apparent. Either antibiotic treatment led to reduced expression of MR1, potentially limiting mucosal-associated invariant T-cell activation, while Neosporin-treated skin selectively revealed significantly reduced CD8+ T-cell abundance. The latter finding aligned with reduced expression of multiple inflammatory markers and markedly increased regulatory T-cell density. Our studies on favorable skin and oral antibiotic treatment share the neomycin compound, and in either case, microbial changes were most apparent in stool samples. Taken together, neomycin-containing antibiotic applications can mediate skin Treg infiltration to limit vitiligo development. Our study highlights the therapeutic potential of short-term antibiotic applications to limit depigmentation vitiligo.

Immune Assessment Today: Optimizing and Standardizing Efforts to Monitor Immune Responses in Cancer and Beyond.

As part of a symposium, current and former directors of Immune Monitoring cores and investigative oncologists presented insights into the past, present and future of immune assessment. Dr. Gnjatic presented a classification of immune monitoring technologies ranging from universally applicable to experimental protocols, while emphasizing the need for assay harmonization. Dr. Obeng discussed physiologic differences among CD8 T cells that align with anti-tumor responses. Dr. Lyerly presented the Soldano Ferrone lecture, commemorating the passionate tumor immunologist who inspired many, and covered a timeline of monitoring technology development and its importance to immuno-oncology. Dr. Sonabend presented recent achievements in glioblastoma treatment, accentuating the range of monitoring techniques that allowed him to refine patient selection for clinical trials. Dr. Guevara-Patiño focused on hypoxia within the tumor environment and stressed that T cell viability is not to be confused with functionality. Dr. Butterfield accentuated monitoring of dendritic cell metabolic (dys)function as a determinant for tumor vaccine success. Lectures were interspersed with select abstract presentations. To summarize the concepts, Dr. Maecker from Stanford led an informative forum discussion, pointing towards the future of immune monitoring. Immune monitoring continues to be a guiding light towards effective immunotherapeutic strategies.

Skin Infiltrate Composition as a Telling Measure of Responses to Checkpoint Inhibitors.

Checkpoint inhibitors treat a variety of tumor types with significant benefits. Unfortunately, these therapies come with diverse adverse events. Skin rash is observed early into treatment and might serve as an indicator of downstream responses to therapy. We studied the cellular composition of cutaneous eruptions and whether their contribution varies with the treatment applied. Skin samples from 18 patients with cancer and 11 controls were evaluated by mono- and multiplex imaging, quantification, and statistical analysis. T cells were the prime contributors to skin rash, with T cells and macrophages interacting and proliferating on site. Among T cell subsets examined, type 1 and 17 T cells were relatively increased among inflammatory skin infiltrates. A combination of increased cytotoxic T cell content and decreased macrophage abundance was associated with dual checkpoint inhibition over PD1 inhibition alone. Importantly, responders significantly separated from nonresponders by greater CD68+ macrophage and either CD11c+ antigen-presenting cell or CD4+ T cell abundance in skin rash. The microenvironment promoted epidermal proliferation and thickening as well. The combination of checkpoint inhibitors used affects the development and composition of skin infiltrates, whereas the combined abundance of two cell types in cutaneous eruptions aligns with responses to checkpoint inhibitor therapy.

Increased Otoferlin Expression in B Cells Is Associated with Muscle Weakness in Untreated Juvenile Dermatomyositis: A Pilot Study.

Otoferlin mRNA expression is increased in JDM patients' PBMCs and muscle compared to healthy controls. This study aims to evaluate the role of otoferlin in JDM disease pathophysiology and its association with disease activity in untreated children with JDM. A total of 26 untreated JDM (88.5% female, 92.3% white, non-Hispanic) and 15 healthy controls were included in this study. Otoferlin mRNA expression was determined by qRT-PCR before and a few months after therapy. Detailed flow cytometry of various cell surface markers and cytoplasmic otoferlin was performed to identify cells expressing otoferlin. In addition, muscle otoferlin expression was evaluated in situ in six untreated JDM patients and three healthy controls. There was a significant increase in otoferlin expression in JDM children compared to controls (Median 67.5 vs. 2.1; p = 0.001). There was a positive correlation between mRNA otoferlin expression and the following disease activity markers: disease activity scores (DAS)-total (rs = 0.62, p < 0.001); childhood myositis assessment scale (CMAS) (rs = -0.61, p = 0.002); neopterin (rs = 0.57, p = 0.004) and von Willebrand factor antigen (vWF: Ag) (rs = 0.60, p = 0.004). Most of the otoferlin-positive cells were unswitched B cells (63-99.4%), with 65-75% of them expressing plasmablast markers (CD19+, IgM+, CD38hi, CD24-). The findings of this pilot study suggest that otoferlin expression is associated with muscle weakness, making it a possible biomarker of disease activity. Additionally, B cells and plasmablasts were the primary cells expressing otoferlin.

Melanocyte-keratinocyte cross-talk in vitiligo.

Vitiligo is a common acquired pigmentary disorder that presents as progressive loss of melanocytes from the skin. Epidermal melanocytes and keratinocytes are in close proximity to each other, forming a functional and structural unit where keratinocytes play a pivotal role in supporting melanocyte homeostasis and melanogenesis. This intimate relationship suggests that keratinocytes might contribute to ongoing melanocyte loss and subsequent depigmentation. In fact, keratinocyte dysfunction is a documented phenomenon in vitiligo. Keratinocyte apoptosis can deprive melanocytes from growth factors including stem cell factor (SCF) and other melanogenic stimulating factors which are essential for melanocyte function. Additionally, keratinocytes control the mobility/stability phases of melanocytes via matrix metalloproteinases and basement membrane remodeling. Hence keratinocyte dysfunction may be implicated in detachment of melanocytes from the basement membrane and subsequent loss from the epidermis, also potentially interfering with repigmentation in patients with stable disease. Furthermore, keratinocytes contribute to the autoimmune insult in vitiligo. Keratinocytes express MHC II in perilesional skin and may present melanosomal antigens in the context of MHC class II after the pigmented organelles have been transferred from melanocytes. Moreover, keratinocytes secrete cytokines and chemokines including CXCL-9, CXCL-10, and IL-15 that amplify the inflammatory circuit within vitiligo skin and recruit melanocyte-specific, skin-resident memory T cells. In summary, keratinocytes can influence vitiligo development by a combination of failing to produce survival factors, limiting melanocyte adhesion in lesional skin, presenting melanocyte antigens and enhancing the recruitment of pathogenic T cells.

Acceleration of melanocyte senescence by the proinflammatory cytokines IFNγ and TNFα impairs the repigmentation response of vitiligo patients to narrowband ultraviolet B (NBUVB) phototherapy.

Vitiligo is a chronic autoimmune disease characterized by the T helper 1 (Th1) cytokine-driven immune destruction of melanocytes (MCs). Although narrowband ultraviolet B (NBUVB) phototherapy has been proven to be an effective therapeutic option, the repigmentation response to that phototherapy varies greatly in different vitiligo patients. Here, we demonstrate that there is an increase of NBUVB-induced cellular senescence in vitiligo MCs exposed to Th1 cytokine interferon γ (IFNγ) and/or tumor necrosis factor α (TNFα) in lesional vitiligo skin from poor responders who had undergone NBUVB phototherapy. Supplementation with exogenous recombinant human stem cell factor (rhSCF) in the culture medium as well as the lentiviral vector-mediated overexpression of cKIT could prevent the MCs from the IFNγ/TNFα-accelerated cellular senescence. Mechanistic studies indicated that the reduced ratio of membrane-bound KIT (mKIT) to the soluble form of KIT (sKIT) is directly related to the cellular senescence of vitiligo MCs following exposure to IFNγ and TNFα. Furthermore, the matrix metalloprotease 9 (MMP9) inhibitor GM6001 attenuates the production of sKIT via the suppression of cKIT ectodomain shedding. Altogether, our study indicates that the presence of Th1 cytokines IFNγ and/or TNFα in the epidermal milieu might impair the repigmentation response of vitiligo patients to NBUVB phototherapy.

Targeting ULK1 Decreases IFNγ-Mediated Resistance to Immune Checkpoint Inhibitors.

Immune checkpoint inhibitors (ICI) have transformed the treatment of melanoma. However, the majority of patients have primary or acquired resistance to ICIs, limiting durable responses and patient survival. IFNγ signaling and the expression of IFNγ-stimulated genes correlate with either response or resistance to ICIs, in a context-dependent manner. While IFNγ-inducible immunostimulatory genes are required for response to ICIs, chronic IFNγ signaling induces the expression of immunosuppressive genes, promoting resistance to these therapies. Here, we show that high levels of Unc-51 like kinase 1 (ULK1) correlate with poor survival in patients with melanoma and overexpression of ULK1 in melanoma cells enhances IFNγ-induced expression of immunosuppressive genes, with minimal effects on the expression of immunostimulatory genes. In contrast, genetic or pharmacologic inhibition of ULK1 reduces expression of IFNγ-induced immunosuppressive genes. ULK1 binds IRF1 in the nuclear compartment of melanoma cells, controlling its binding to the programmed death-ligand 1 promoter region. In addition, pharmacologic inhibition of ULK1 in combination with anti-programmed cell death protein 1 therapy further reduces melanoma tumor growth in vivo. Our data suggest that targeting ULK1 represses IFNγ-dependent immunosuppression. These findings support the combination of ULK1 drug-targeted inhibition with ICIs for the treatment of patients with melanoma to improve response rates and patient outcomes. IMPLICATIONS: This study identifies ULK1, activated downstream of IFNγ signaling, as a druggable target to overcome resistance mechanisms to ICI therapy in metastatic melanoma.

SARA suppresses myofibroblast precursor transdifferentiation in fibrogenesis in a mouse model of scleroderma.

We previously reported that Smad anchor for receptor activation (SARA) plays a critical role in maintaining epithelial cell phenotype. Here, we show that SARA suppressed myofibroblast precursor transdifferentiation in a mouse model of scleroderma. Mice overexpressing SARA specifically in PDGFR-ß+ pericytes and pan-leukocytes (SARATg) developed significantly less skin fibrosis in response to bleomycin injection compared with wild-type littermates (SARAWT). Single-cell RNA-Seq analysis of skin PDGFR-ß+ cells implicated pericyte subsets assuming myofibroblast characteristics under fibrotic stimuli, and SARA overexpression blocked the transition. In addition, a cluster that expresses molecules associated with Th2 cells and macrophage activation was enriched in SARAWT mice, but not in SARATg mice, after bleomycin treatment. Th2-specific Il-31 expression was increased in skin of the bleomycin-treated SARAWT mice and patients with scleroderma (or systemic sclerosis, SSc). Receptor-ligand analyses indicated that lymphocytes mediated pericyte transdifferentiation in SARAWT mice, while with SARA overexpression the myofibroblast activity of pericytes was suppressed. Together, these data suggest a potentially novel crosstalk between myofibroblast precursors and immune cells in the pathogenesis of SSc, in which SARA plays a critical role.

Benign tumors in TSC are amenable to treatment by GD3 CAR T cells in mice.

Mutations underlying disease in tuberous sclerosis complex (TSC) give rise to tumors with biallelic mutations in TSC1 or TSC2 and hyperactive mammalian target of rapamycin complex 1 (mTORC1). Benign tumors might exhibit de novo expression of immunogens, targetable by immunotherapy. As tumors may rely on ganglioside D3 (GD3) expression for mTORC1 activation and growth, we compared GD3 expression in tissues from patients with TSC and controls. GD3 was overexpressed in affected tissues from patients with TSC and also in aging Tsc2+/- mice. As GD3 overexpression was not accompanied by marked natural immune responses to the target molecule, we performed preclinical studies with GD3 chimeric antigen receptor (CAR) T cells. Polyfunctional CAR T cells were cytotoxic toward GD3-overexpressing targets. In mice challenged with Tsc2-/- tumor cells, CAR T cells substantially and durably reduced the tumor burden, correlating with increased T cell infiltration. We also treated aged Tsc2+/- heterozygous (>60 weeks) mice that carry spontaneous Tsc2-/- tumors with GD3 CAR or untransduced T cells and evaluated them at endpoint. Following CAR T cell treatment, the majority of mice were tumor free while all control animals carried tumors. The outcomes demonstrate a strong treatment effect and suggest that targeting GD3 can be successful in TSC.

HSP70iQ435A to subdue autoimmunity and support anti-tumor responses.

Developing immunosuppressive therapies for autoimmune diseases comes with a caveat that immunosuppression may promote the risk of developing other conditions or diseases. We have previously shown that biolistic delivery of an expression construct encoding inducible HSP70 (HSP70i) with one amino acid modification in the dendritic cell (DC) activating moiety 435-445 (HSP70iQ435A) to mouse skin resulted in significant immunosuppressive activity of autoimmune vitiligo, associated with fewer tissue infiltrating T cells. To prepare HSP70iQ435A as a potential therapeutic for autoimmune vitiligo, in this study we evaluated whether and how biolistic delivery of HSP70iQ435A in mice affects anti-tumor responses. We found that HSP70iQ435A in fact supports anti-tumor responses in melanoma-challenged C57BL/6 mice. Biolistic delivery of the HSP70iQ435A-encoding construct to mice elicited significant anti-HSP70 titers, and anti-HSP70 IgG and IgM antibodies recognize surface-expressed and cytoplasmic HSP70i in human and mouse melanoma cells. A peptide scan revealed that the anti-HSP70 antibodies recognize a specific C-terminal motif within the HSP70i protein. The antibodies elicited surface CD107A expression among mouse NK cells, representative of antibody-mediated cellular cytotoxicity (ADCC), supporting the concept, that HSP70iQ435A-encoding DNA elicits a humoral response to the stress protein expressed selectively on the surface of melanoma cells. Thus, besides limiting autoimmunity and inflammation, HSP70iQ435A elicits humoral responses that limit tumor growth and may be used in conjunction with immune checkpoint inhibitors to not only control tumor but to also limit adverse events following tumor immunotherapy.

A Palette of Cytokines to Measure Anti-Tumor Efficacy of T Cell-Based Therapeutics.

Cytokines are key molecules within the tumor microenvironment (TME) that can be used as biomarkers to predict the magnitude of anti-tumor immune responses. During immune monitoring, it has been customary to predict outcomes based on the abundance of a single cytokine, in particular IFN-γ or TGF-ß, as a readout of ongoing anti-cancer immunity. However, individual cytokines within the TME can exhibit dual opposing roles. For example, both IFN-γ and TGF-ß have been associated with pro- and anti-tumor functions. Moreover, cytokines originating from different cellular sources influence the crosstalk between CD4+ and CD8+ T cells, while the array of cytokines expressed by T cells is also instrumental in defining the mechanisms of action and efficacy of treatments. Thus, it becomes increasingly clear that a reliable readout of ongoing immunity within the TME will have to include more than the measurement of a single cytokine. This review focuses on defining a panel of cytokines that could help to reliably predict and analyze the outcomes of T cell-based anti-tumor therapies.

Engineered antigen-specific regulatory T cells for autoimmune skin conditions.

Regulatory T cells (Tregs) are a subset of T cells responsible for the regulation of immune responses, thereby maintaining immune homeostasis and providing immune tolerance to both self and non-self-antigens. An increasing number of studies revealed Treg numbers and functions in a variety of autoimmune diseases. Treg deficiency can cause the development of several autoimmune skin diseases including vitiligo, alopecia areata, pemphigoid and pemphigus, psoriasis, and systemic sclerosis. Many clinical trials have been performed for autoimmune conditions using polyclonal Tregs, but efficiency can be significantly improved using antigen-specific Tregs engineered using T cell receptor (TCR) or chimeric antigen receptor (CAR) constructs. In this review, we systematically reviewed altered frequencies, impaired functions, and phenotypic features of Tregs in autoimmune skin conditions. We also summarized new advances in TCR and CAR based antigen-specific Tregs tested both in animal models and in clinics. The advantages and limitations of each approach were carefully discussed emphasizing possible clinical relevance to patients with autoimmune skin diseases. Moreover, we have reviewed potential approaches for engineering antigen-specific Tregs, and strategies for overcoming possible hurdles in clinical applications. Thereby, antigen-specific Tregs can be infused using autologous adoptive cell transfer to restore Treg numbers and to provide local immune tolerance for autoimmune skin disorders.

Myron Gordon Award paper: Microbes, T-cell diversity and pigmentation.

Melanocytes are static, minimally proliferative cells. This leaves them vulnerable in vitiligo. Yet upon malignant transformation, they form vicious tumors. This profound switch in physiology is accompanied by genetic change and is driven by environmental factors. If UV exposure in younger years supports malignant transformation and melanoma formation, it can likewise impart mutations on melanocytes that reduce their viability, to initiate vitiligo. A wide variety of microbes can influence these diametrically opposed outcomes before either disease takes hold. These microbes are vehicles of change that we are only beginning to study. Once a genetic modification occurs, there is a wide variety of immune cells ready to respond. Though it does not act alone, the T cell is among the most decisive responders in this process. The same biochemical process that offered the skin protection by producing melanin can become an Achilles heel for the cell when the T cells target melanosomal enzymes or, on occasion, neoantigens. T cells are precise, determined, and consequential when they strike. Here, we probe the relationship between the microbiome and its metabolites, epithelial integrity, and the activation of T cells that target benign and malignant melanocytes in vitiligo and melanoma.

Antigen Specificity Enhances Disease Control by Tregs in Vitiligo.

Vitiligo is an autoimmune skin disease characterized by melanocyte destruction. Regulatory T cells (Tregs) are greatly reduced in vitiligo skin, and replenishing peripheral skin Tregs can provide protection against depigmentation. Ganglioside D3 (GD3) is overexpressed by perilesional epidermal cells, including melanocytes, which prompted us to generate GD3-reactive chimeric antigen receptor (CAR) Tregs to treat vitiligo. Mice received either untransduced Tregs or GD3-specific Tregs to test the hypothesis that antigen specificity contributes to reduced autoimmune reactivity in vitro and in vivo. CAR Tregs displayed increased IL-10 secretion in response to antigen, provided superior control of cytotoxicity towards melanocytes, and supported a significant delay in depigmentation compared to untransduced Tregs and vehicle control recipients in a TCR transgenic mouse model of spontaneous vitiligo. The latter findings were associated with a greater abundance of Tregs and melanocytes in treated mice versus both control groups. Our data support the concept that antigen-specific Tregs can be prepared, used, and stored for long-term control of progressive depigmentation.

A Rapid Method for Multispectral Fluorescence Imaging of Frozen Tissue Sections.

Multispectral fluorescence imaging on formalin-fixed paraffin-embedded (FFPE) tissues enables the detection of multiple markers in a single tissue sample that can provide information about antigen coexpression and spatial distribution of the markers. However, a lack of suitable antibodies for formalin-fixed tissues may restrict the nature of markers that can be detected. In addition, the staining method is time-consuming. Here we describe a rapid method to perform multispectral fluorescence imaging on frozen tissues. The method includes the fluorophore combinations used, detailed steps for the staining of mouse and human frozen tissues, and the scanning, acquisition, and analysis procedures. For staining analysis, a commercially available semiautomated multispectral fluorescence imaging system is used. Through this method, up to six different markers were stained and detected in a single frozen tissue section. The machine learning analysis software can phenotype cells that can be used for quantitative analysis. The method described here for frozen tissues is useful for the detection of markers that cannot be detected in FFPE tissues or for which antibodies are not available for FFPE tissues.

Adoptive T-Cell Transfer to Treat Lymphangioleiomyomatosis.

Patients with lymphangioleiomyomatosis (LAM) develop pulmonary cysts associated with neoplastic, smooth muscle-like cells that feature neuroendocrine cell markers. The disease preferentially affects premenopausal women. Existing therapeutics do not cure LAM. As gp100 is a diagnostic marker expressed by LAM lesions, we proposed to target this immunogenic glycoprotein using TCR transgenic T cells. To reproduce the genetic mutations underlying LAM, we cultured Tsc2-/- kidney tumor cells from aged Tsc2 heterozygous mice and generated a stable gp100-expressing cell line by lentiviral transduction. T cells were isolated from major histocompatibility complex-matched TCR transgenic pmel-1 mice to measure cytotoxicity in vitro, and 80% cytotoxicity was observed within 48 hours. Antigen-specific cytotoxicity was likewise observed using pmel-1 TCR-transduced mouse T cells, suggesting that transgenic T cells may likewise be useful to treat LAM in vivo. On intravenous injection, slow-growing gp100+ LAM-like cells formed lung nodules that were readily detectable in severe combined immunodeficient/beige mice. Adoptive transfer of gp100-reactive but not wild-type T cells into mice significantly shrunk established lung tumors, even in the absence of anti-PD-1 therapy. These results demonstrate the treatment potential of adoptively transferred T cells to eliminate pulmonary lesions in LAM.