RESUMEN
Despite being an essential trace element for numerous metabolic processes and micronutrients, copper (Cu) has induced adverse effects on the environment and public health due to its continuous and widespread use for the last several decades. The current study assessed the hematological and histopathological alterations in the freshwater fish (Labeo rohita) exposed to graded concentrations of copper sulfate. For this purpose, L. rohita fish (n = 72), weighing ~200-215 g, were randomly divided into four experimental groups and then exposed to acute doses of CuSO4, i.e., control, 0.28, 0.42, and 0.56 µgL-1. For comparative analysis of hematological and biochemical changes, blood/serum samples were obtained on 12, 24, and 36 days. Overall, the body weight of fish decreased with the time and dose of CuSO4; as the dose increases, body weight decreases. Dose and time-dependent results were observed in other parameters also. Results showed a significant increase in leukocytes, whereas red blood cells count, Hb, and Hct were significantly reduced in treated groups compared to the control. The mean corpuscular hemoglobin (MHC) and mean corpuscular hemoglobin concentration (MCHC) showed a non-significant decrease in treated groups compared to the control group. Serum biochemical parameters, including total proteins, albumin, and globulin, decreased significantly (p < 0.05). At the same time, alanine aminotransferase (ALT), aspartate aminotransferase (AST), alkaline phosphatase (ALP), lactate dehydrogenase (LDH), glucose, and cholesterol were significantly (p < 0.05) increased in the treated groups compared to the control group. Significantly (p < 0.05) increased levels of lipid peroxidation while decreased values of antioxidant enzymes, including superoxide dismutase (SOD), catalase (CAT), and reduced glutathione (RGSH) in the blood of fish were recorded. Histopathological examination of fish gills, liver, and kidneys showed inflammation and degenerative changes due to CuSO4 exposure. In the brain tissue, degenerative changes like neuron necrosis, intracellular edema, cytoplasmic vacuolization, and congestion were observed. In conclusion, the study indicates that exposure to copper sulfate, even in smaller concentrations, can cause adverse hematological and histopathological changes in L. rohita fish.
RESUMEN
Proteins and peptide drugs have a great therapeutic potential and their usage in the treatment of various severe diseases has revolutionised the fields of pharmaceuticals and biotechnology. For successful therapeutic effects, various efforts have been made for effective delivery of proteins/peptide drugs through various routes of administrations. Parenteral and non-parenteral drug deliveries are regarded as significant routes of drug absorption. In addition to intravenous, subcutaneous and intramuscular routes, the oral route is more effective for protein and peptides therapeutics. However, there is a need to improve non-parenteral drug delivery systems (DDS) to increase drug absorption in a more effective way. The present narrative review was planned to describe routes and barriers for protein/peptide drugs and how to improve drug delivery systems in an effective way. For this purpose, numerous research articles were searched from year 2000-2021 using search engines like PubMed, Google Scholar, Medline and ISI Web of Knowledge, and Bioline International while applying different keywords such as 'protein and peptide drugs', 'drug delivery systems', 'parenteral and non-parenteral routes of drug delivery' and 'physicochemical barriers'. It was concluded that the success of the therapeutics is strongly influenced by the differential delivery of targeted antigen, the choice of targeting protein or peptide, and drug-release characteristics of the linker used. Furthermore, there should be an improvement in non-parenteral DDSs so that the drugs might be administered in an appropriate manner.
