A peptide that ameliorates lupus up-regulates the diminished expression of early growth response factors 2 and 3.

Expansion of autoreactive T cells and their resistance to anergy was demonstrated in systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE). A pair of transcription factors, early growth response 2 (Egr-2) and 3 (Egr-3), are negative regulators of T cell activation that were shown to be important in anergy. A peptide (designated hCDR1 for human CDR1) based on the CDR-1 of an anti-DNA Ab ameliorated SLE in both induced and spontaneous lupus models. Our objectives were to determine the expression levels of Egr-2 and Egr-3 in autoreactive T cells following immunization with the lupus-inducing anti-DNA Ab that bears a common Id designated 16/6Id and also in a full-blown SLE and to determine the effect of hCDR1 on these transcription factors. We demonstrated diminished expression levels of Egr-2 and Egr-3 mRNA both early after immunization with the 16/6Id and in SLE-afflicted (NZB x NZW)F1 (New Zealand Black and New Zealand White) mice. Furthermore, by down-regulating Akt phosphorylation and up-regulating TGFbeta secretion, treatment with hCDR1 significantly up-regulated Egr-2 and Egr-3 expression. This was associated with an increased expression of the E3 ligase Cbl-b. Inhibition of Akt in T cells of immunized mice decreased, whereas silencing of the Egr-2 and Egr-3 in T cells of hCDR1-treated mice increased IFN-gamma secretion. Thus, hCDR1 down-regulates Akt phosphorylation, which leads to up-regulated expression of T cell Egr-2 and Egr-3, resulting in the inhibition of IFN-gamma secretion that is required for the maintenance of SLE.

Cutting edge: T cells respond to lipopolysaccharide innately via TLR4 signaling.

LPS, a molecule produced by Gram-negative bacteria, is known to activate both innate immune cells such as macrophages and adaptive immune B cells via TLR4 signaling. Although TLR4 is also expressed on T cells, LPS was observed not to affect T cell proliferation or cytokine secretion. We now report, however, that LPS can induce human T cells to adhere to fibronectin via TLR4 signaling. This response to LPS was confirmed in mouse T cells; functional TLR4 and MyD88 were required, but T cells from TLR2 knockout mice could respond to LPS. The human T cell response to LPS depended on protein kinase C signaling and involved the phosphorylation of the proline-rich tyrosine kinase (Pyk-2) and p38. LPS also up-regulated the T cell expression of suppressor of cytokine signaling 3, which led to inhibition of T cell chemotaxis toward the chemokine stromal cell-derived factor 1alpha (CXCL12). Thus, LPS, through TLR4 signaling, can affect T cell behavior in inflammation.

Chondroitin sulfate-derived disaccharide protects retinal cells from elevated intraocular pressure in aged and immunocompromised rats.

PURPOSE: A disaccharide (DS) derived from the naturally occurring compound chondroitin sulfate proteoglycan (CSPG) was recently shown to have neuroprotective activity. The authors examined the ability of this compound (CSPG-DS) to protect retinal ganglion cells (RGCs) from death caused by elevated intraocular pressure (IOP). METHODS: With the use of chronic and acute models of elevated IOP, the authors examined the effects of CSPG-DS on RGC survival in adult ( approximately 2 months old), aged (10-12 months old), and immunocompromised Lewis rats. Systemic, topical, and oral routes of administration were examined. RESULTS: CSPG-DS protected RGCs from IOP-induced death. Treatment was effective in all three examined rat populations (normal adult, aged, and immunocompromised rats) and with all routes of administration, possibly in part through its control of microglial activity. CONCLUSIONS: Results point to the therapeutic potential of CSPG-DS for glaucoma, particularly in elderly populations for whom disease prevalence is high.

The negative regulators Foxj1 and Foxo3a are up-regulated by a peptide that inhibits systemic lupus erythematosus-associated T cell responses.

A peptide (hCDR1) based on the complementarity determining region-1 of an anti-DNA antibody ameliorates systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) in induced and spontaneous lupus models. Our objectives were to determine the effects of hCDR1 on TCR signaling and on its negative regulators, Foxj1 and Foxo3a. BALB/c mice were immunized with the SLE-inducing anti-DNA antibody, designated 16/6Id, and treated with hCDR1. hCDR1 treatment specifically inhibited IFN-gamma secretion by T cells in association with down-regulated T-bet expression and NF-kappaB activation; however, GATA-3 expression was not affected. Furthermore, TCR signaling (ZAP-70 phosphorylation) was inhibited, and the mRNA expression of the two modulators of Th1 activation, Foxj1 and Foxo3a, was significantly up-regulated. The latter were also elevated in SLE-afflicted (NZBxNZW)F1 mice that were treated with hCDR1. Addition of TGF-beta, which was elevated following treatment with hCDR1, to T cells from 16/6Id immunized mice, up-regulated Foxj1 and Foxo3a mRNA expression, similarly to hCDR1. In contrast, anti-TGF-beta antibodies added to hCDR1-treated T cells abrogated its effect. Thus, hCDR1 elevates TGF-beta, which contributes to the up-regulation of T cell Foxj1 and Foxo3a expression, leading to inhibition of NF-kappaB activation and IFN-gamma secretion, which is required for the maintenance of SLE.

Peptide p277 of HSP60 signals T cells: inhibition of inflammatory chemotaxis.

Peptide p277 is a 24-amino acid fragment of the heat shock protein 60 molecule, first discovered to be an antigen for diabetogenic T-cell clones in non-obese diabetic (NOD) mice. Therapeutic vaccination with p277 can arrest the spontaneous diabetogenic process both in NOD mice and in humans associated with a T(h)1 to T(h)2 cytokine shift specific for the autoimmune T cells. We now report that p277 can directly signal human T cells via innate toll-like receptor (TLR)-2, leading to up-regulation of integrin-mediated adhesion to fibronectin, and inhibition of chemotaxis to the chemokine SDF-1alpha in vitro. Resting CD45RA(+) T cells responded to lower concentrations of p277 than resting CD45RO(+) T cells, but activation of CD45RO(+) T cells greatly increased their sensitivity to p277. Mouse T cells, but not macrophages, were also sensitive to the innate effects of peptide p277, and adoptive transfer of diabetes by splenic T cells from NOD mice could be inhibited by p277 treatment before transfer. Thus, T cells do respond innately to p277, and signaling by soluble p277 through TLR2 could contribute to the treatment of type 1 diabetes; p277 may stop the destruction of beta cells by signaling in concert both innate and adaptive receptors on T cells.

Heat shock protein 60 enhances CD4+ CD25+ regulatory T cell function via innate TLR2 signaling.

CD4+CD25+ Tregs regulate immunity, but little is known about their own regulation. We now report that the human 60-kDa heat shock protein (HSP60) acts as a costimulator of human Tregs, both CD4+CD25int and CD4+CD25hi. Treatment of Tregs with HSP60, or its peptide p277, before anti-CD3 activation significantly enhanced the ability of relatively low concentrations of the Tregs to downregulate CD4+CD25- or CD8+ target T cells, detected as inhibition of target T cell proliferation and IFN-gamma and TNF-alpha secretion. The enhancing effects of HSP60 costimulation on Tregs involved innate signaling via TLR2, led to activation of PKC, PI3K, and p38, and were further enhanced by inhibition of ERK. HSP60-treated Tregs suppressed target T cells both by cell-to-cell contact and by secretion of TGF-beta and IL-10. In addition, the expression of ERK, NF-kappaB, and T-bet by downregulated target T cells was inhibited. Thus, HSP60, a self-molecule, can downregulate adaptive immune responses by upregulating Tregs innately through TLR2 signaling.

A sulfated disaccharide derived from chondroitin sulfate proteoglycan protects against inflammation-associated neurodegeneration.

Chondroitin sulfate proteoglycan (CSPG), a matrix protein that occurs naturally in the central nervous system (CNS), is considered to be a major inhibitor of axonal regeneration and is known to participate in activation of the inflammatory response. The degradation of CSPG by a specific enzyme, chondroitinase ABC, promotes repair. We postulated that a disaccharidic degradation product of this glycoprotein (CSPG-DS), generated following such degradation, participates in the modulation of the inflammatory responses and can, therefore, promote recovery in immune-induced neuropathologies of the CNS, such as experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (EAE) and experimental autoimmune uveitis (EAU). In these pathologies, the dramatic increase in T cells infiltrating the CNS is far in excess of the numbers needed for regular maintenance. Here, we show that CSPG-DS markedly alleviated the clinical symptoms of EAE and protected against the neuronal loss in EAU. The last effect was associated with a reduction in the numbers of infiltrating T cells and marked microglia activation. This is further supported by our in vitro results indicating that CSPG-DS attenuated T cell motility and decreased secretion of the cytokines interferon-gamma and tumor necrosis factor-alpha. Mechanistically, these effects are associated with an increase in SOCS-3 levels and a decrease in NF-kappaB. Our results point to a potential therapeutic modality, in which a compound derived from an endogenous CNS-resident molecule, known for its destructive role in CNS recovery, might be helpful in overcoming inflammation-induced neurodegenerative conditions.

The inhibition of autoreactive T cell functions by a peptide based on the CDR1 of an anti-DNA autoantibody is via TGF-beta-mediated suppression of LFA-1 and CD44 expression and function.

Systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE), which is characterized by the increased production of autoantibodies and defective T cell responses, can be induced in mice by immunization with a human anti-DNA mAb that expresses a major Id, designated 16/6Id. A peptide based on the sequence of the CDR1 of the 16/6Id (human CDR1 (hCDR1)) ameliorated the clinical manifestations of SLE and down-regulated, ex vivo, the 16/6Id-induced T cell proliferation. In this study, we examined the mechanism responsible for the hCDR1-induced modulation of T cell functions related to the pathogenesis of SLE. We found that injection of hCDR1 into BALB/c mice concomitant with their immunization with 16/6Id resulted in a marked elevation of TGF-beta secretion 10 days later. Addition of TGF-beta suppressed the 16/6Id-stimulated T cell proliferation similarly to hCDR1. In addition, we provide evidence that one possible mechanism underlying the hCDR1- and TGFbeta-induced inhibition of T cell proliferation is by down-regulating the expression, and therefore the functions, of a pair of key cell adhesion receptors, LFA-1 (alphaLbeta2) and CD44, which operate as accessory molecules in mediating APC-T cell interactions. Indeed, T cells of mice treated with hCDR1 showed a TGF-beta-induced suppression of adhesion to the LFA-1 and CD44 ligands, hyaluronic acid and ICAM-1, respectively, induced by stromal cell-derived factor-1alpha and PMA. The latter suppression is through the inhibition of ERK phosphorylation. Thus, the down-regulation of SLE-associated responses by hCDR1 treatment may be due to the effect of the up-regulated TGF-beta on the expression and function of T cell adhesion receptors and, consequently, on T cell stimulation, adhesion, and proliferation.

Heat shock protein 60 activates B cells via the TLR4-MyD88 pathway.

We recently reported that soluble 60-kDa heat shock protein (HSP60) can directly activate T cells via TLR2 signaling to enhance their Th2 response. In this study we investigated whether HSP60 might also activate B cells by an innate signaling pathway. We found that human HSP60 (but not the Escherichia coli GroEL or the Mycobacterial HSP65 molecules) induced naive mouse B cells to proliferate and to secrete IL-10 and IL-6. In addition, the HSP60-treated B cells up-regulated their expression of MHC class II and accessory molecules CD69, CD40, and B7-2. We tested the functional ability of HSP60-treated B cells to activate an allogeneic T cell response and found enhanced secretion of both IL-10 and IFN-gamma by the responding T cells. The effects of HSP60 were found to be largely dependent on TLR4 and MyD88 signaling; B cells from TLR4-mutant mice or from MyD88 knockout mice showed decreased responses to HSP60. Care was taken to rule out contamination of the HSP60 with LPS as a causative factor. These findings add B cells to the complex web of interactions by which HSP60 can regulate immune responses.

Cytokine induction by the hepatitis B virus capsid in macrophages is facilitated by membrane heparan sulfate and involves TLR2.

The hepatitis B virus (HBV) core Ag (HBcAg) serves as the structural subunit of the highly immunogenic capsid shell. HBcAg harbors a unique arginine-rich C terminus that was implicated in immune responses induced by the capsid. In this study, we examined the capacity of the HBV capsid to induce proinflammatory and regulatory cytokines in human THP-1 macrophages and the possible underlying mechanism. Full-length HBc capsids, but not HBc-144 capsids lacking the arginine-rich domain of HBcAg, efficiently bound differentiated THP-1 macrophages and strongly induced TNF-alpha, IL-6, and IL-12p40. Capsid binding to macrophages and cytokine induction were independent of the RNA associated with the arginine-rich domain. Soluble heparin and heparan sulfate but not chondroitin sulfates greatly diminished cytokine induction through inhibition of capsid binding to THP-1 macrophages. Furthermore, serine phosphorylation in the arginine-rich domain modulates capsid binding to macrophages and the cytokine response. Induction of cytokines by the capsid involved activation of NF-kappaB, ERK-1/2, and p38 MAPK and did not require endosomal acidification. Finally, NF-kappaB activation by the capsid in HEK 293 cells specifically required expression of TLR2 and was compromised by soluble heparin. Thus, cytokine induction by the HBV capsid in macrophages is facilitated by interaction of its arginine-rich domain with membrane heparan sulfate and involves signaling through TLR2.

Heat shock protein 60 activates cytokine-associated negative regulator suppressor of cytokine signaling 3 in T cells: effects on signaling, chemotaxis, and inflammation.

Previously, we reported that treatment of T cells with the 60-kDa heat shock protein (HSP60) inhibits chemotaxis. We now report that treatment of purified human T cells with recombinant human HSP60 or its biologically active peptide p277 up-regulates suppressor of cytokine signaling (SOCS)3 expression via TLR2 and STAT3 activation. SOCS3, in turn, inhibits the downstream effects of stromal cell-derived-1alpha (CXCL12)-CXCR4 interaction in: 1) phosphorylation of ERK1/2, Pyk2, AKT, and myosin L chain, required for cell adhesion and migration; 2) formation of rear-front T cell polarity; and 3) migration into the bone marrow of NOD/SCID mice. HSP60 also activates SOCS3 in mouse lymphocytes and inhibits their chemotaxis toward stromal cell-derived factor-1alpha and their ability to adoptively transfer delayed-type hypersensitivity. These effects of HSP60 could not be attributed to LPS or LPS-associated lipoprotein contamination. Thus, HSP60 can regulate T cell-mediated inflammation via specific signal transduction and SOCS3 activation.

Heat shock protein 60 inhibits Th1-mediated hepatitis model via innate regulation of Th1/Th2 transcription factors and cytokines.

Extracellular heat shock protein 60 (HSP60) has been considered a proinflammatory danger signal. Yet, HSP60 can also down-regulate experimental immune arthritis and diabetes models by specific inhibition of Th1-like responses. We now report that HSP60 in vitro differentially modulates the expression of Th1/Th2 transcription factors in human T cells: HSP60 down-regulates T-bet, NF-kappaB, and NFATp and up-regulates GATA-3, leading to decreased secretion of TNF-alpha and IFN-gamma and enhanced secretion of IL-10. These effects depended on TLR2 signaling and could not be attributed to LPS or to other contaminants. In BALB/c mice, HSP60 in vivo inhibited the clinical, histological, and serological manifestations of Con A-induced hepatitis associated with up-regulated T cell expression of suppressor of cytokine signaling 3 and GATA-3 and down-regulated T-bet expression. These results provide a molecular explanation for the effects of HSP60 treatment on T cell inflammation via innate regulation of the inflammatory response.

Down-regulation of stromal cell-derived factor-1alpha-induced T cell chemotaxis by a peptide based on the complementarity-determining region 1 of an anti-DNA autoantibody via up-regulation of TGF-beta secretion.

Systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) can be induced in mice by immunizing them with a monoclonal human anti-DNA Ab that expresses a major Id, designated 16/6Id. In addition, a peptide based on the sequence of the CDR 1 (hCDR1) of the 16/6Id ameliorated the clinical manifestations of SLE in experimental models. In this study we examined the effects of treating mice with human complementary-determining region 1 (hCDR1) on the subsequent chemotaxis of T cells derived from 16/6Id-primed mice. First we demonstrated elevated levels of stromal cell-derived factor-1alpha (SDF-1alpha) in the sera of SLE-afflicted mice and in the sera and lymphoid tissues of 16/6Id-immunized BALB/c mice shortly after the immunization. We then found that administration of hCDR1 to 16/6Id-immunized mice specifically down-regulated SDF1alpha-induced T cell chemotaxis through fibronectin and collagen type I. This was accompanied by diminished SDF1-alpha-induced T cell adhesion and ERK phosphorylation. Treatment with hCDR1 up-regulated TGF-beta secretion, which, in turn, inhibited the murine T cell adhesion to and chemotaxis through fibronectin as well as their ERK phosphorylation. Thus, the secretion of TGF-beta after treatment of 16/6Id-immunized mice with hCDR1 plays an important role in the down-regulation of SDF-1alpha-mediated T cell activation and the interactions with extracellular matrix moieties observed in the present study.

A disaccharide derived from chondroitin sulphate proteoglycan promotes central nervous system repair in rats and mice.

Chondroitin sulphate proteoglycan (CSPG) inhibits axonal regeneration in the central nervous system (CNS) and its local degradation promotes repair. We postulated that the enzymatic degradation of CSPG generates reparative products. Here we show that an enzymatic degradation product of CSPG, a specific disaccharide (CSPG-DS), promoted CNS recovery by modulating both neuronal and microglial behaviour. In neurons, acting via a mechanism that involves the PKCalpha and PYK2 intracellular signalling pathways, CSPG-DS induced neurite outgrowth and protected against neuronal toxicity and axonal collapse in vitro. In microglia, via a mechanism that involves ERK1/2 and PYK2, CSPG-DS evoked a response that allowed these cells to manifest a neuroprotective phenotype ex vivo. In vivo, systemically or locally injected CSPG-DS protected neurons in mice subjected to glutamate or aggregated beta-amyloid intoxication. Our results suggest that treatment with CSPG-DS might provide a way to promote post-traumatic recovery, via multiple cellular targets.

Inhibition of IL-1beta and TNF-alpha secretion from resting and activated human immunocytes by the homeopathic medication Traumeel S.

Traumeel S (Traumeel), a mixture of highly diluted (10(-1)-10(-9)) extracts from medicinal plants and minerals is widely used in humans to relieve trauma, inflammation and degenerative processes. However, little is known about its possible effects on the behavior of immune cells. The effects of Traumeel were examined in vitro on the ability of resting and PHA-, PMA- or TNF-alpha-activated human T cells, monocytes, and gut epithelial cells to secrete the prototypic pro-inflammatory mediators IL-1beta, TNF-alpha and IL-8 over a period of 24-72 h. Traumeel inhibited the secretion of all three agents in resting, as well as activated immune cells. IL-beta secretion was reduced by up to 70% in both resting and activated cells; TNF-alpha secretion was reduced by up to 65 and 54%, respectively, and IL-8 secretion was reduced by 50% in both resting and activated cells (P < 0.01 for all cells). Interestingly, the effect appeared to be inversely dose-related; maximal inhibition (usually 30-60% inhibition; P < 0.01) was seen with dilutions of 10(-3)-10(-6) of the Traumeel stock material. This finding suggests that Traumeel does not inhibit immune cells functions by exerting a toxic effect. Indeed, Traumeel did not affect T cell and monocyte proliferation. Although additional studies are needed to clarify the mode of action of Traumeel and to demonstrate causative relationship between the inhibition of cytokine/chemokine secretion in cell culture and the reported clinical effects of the preparation, our in vitro results offer a mechanism for the anti-inflammatory effects of Traumeel observed in clinical use.

Association between common Toll-like receptor 4 mutations and severe respiratory syncytial virus disease.

BACKGROUND: The clinical spectrum of respiratory syncytial virus (RSV) bronchiolitis in previously healthy infants is extremely variable. Thus, it is likely that factors such as genetic heterogeneity contribute to disease severity. Toll-like receptor 4 (TLR4) and CD14 are part of a receptor complex involved in the innate immune response to RSV. METHODS: The association of the TLR4 mutations (Asp299Gly and Thr399Ile) and the CD14/-159 polymorphism were analyzed in 99 infants hospitalized with severe RSV bronchiolitis (group I). Eighty-two ambulatory infants with mild RSV bronchiolitis (group II) and 90 healthy adults (group III) composed the 2 control groups. The TLR4 mutations and the CD14/-159 polymorphism were genotyped by use of reverse-transcriptase polymerase chain reaction and restriction fragment-length polymorphism analysis, respectively. RESULTS: Each of the TLR4 mutations, either alone or in cosegregation, were associated with severe RSV bronchiolitis: the Asp299Gly and Thr399Ile mutations were significantly overrepresented in group I, compared with groups II and III. No association between the CD14/-159 polymorphism and RSV bronchiolitis was found. CONCLUSIONS: These findings suggest that TLR4 mutations, but not the CD14/-159 polymorphism, are associated with an increased risk of severe RSV bronchiolitis in previously healthy infants.

Enzymatically quiescent heparanase augments T cell interactions with VCAM-1 and extracellular matrix components under versatile dynamic contexts.

During their migration into inflammatory sites, immune cells, such as T cells, secrete extracellular matrix (ECM)-degrading enzymes, such as heparanase, which, under mildly acidic conditions, degrade heparan sulfate proteoglycans (HSPG). We have previously shown that at pH 7.2, human placental heparanase loses its enzymatic activity, while retaining its ability to bind HSPG and promote T cell adhesion to unfractionated ECM. We now demonstrate that the 65-kDa recombinant human heparanase, which is devoid of enzymatic activity, but can still bind HSPG, captures T cells under shear flow conditions and mediates their rolling and arrest, in the absence or presence of stromal cell-derived factor 1 alpha (SDF-1 alpha; CXCL12), in an alpha(4)beta(1)-VCAM-1-dependent manner. Furthermore, heparanase binds to and induces T cell adhesion to key ECM components, like fibronectin and hyaluronic acid, in beta(1) integrin- and CD44-specific manners, respectively, via the activation of the protein kinase C and phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase intracellular signaling machineries. Although the nature of the putative T cell heparanase-binding moiety is unknown, it appears that heparanase exerts its proadhesive activity by interacting with the T cells' surface HSPG, because pretreatment of the cells with heparinase abolished their subsequent response to heparanase. Also, heparanase augmented the SDF-1 alpha-triggered phosphorylation of Pyk-2 and extracellular signal-regulated kinase-2 implicated in integrin functioning. Moreover, heparanase, which had no chemotactic effect on T cells on its own, augmented the SDF-1 alpha-induced T cell chemotaxis across fibronectin. These findings add another dimension to the known versatility of heparanase as a key regulator of T cell activities during inflammation, both in the context of the vasculature and at extravascular sites.

Allicin inhibits SDF-1alpha-induced T cell interactions with fibronectin and endothelial cells by down-regulating cytoskeleton rearrangement, Pyk-2 phosphorylation and VLA-4 expression.

Allicin, a major ingredient of fresh garlic extract that is produced during the crushing of garlic cloves, exerts various beneficial biological effects, including a broad spectrum of antimicrobial activity, antihyperlipidaemic and antihypertensive effects. However, how allicin affects the immune system is less well known, and its effect on human T cells has never been studied. Here, we examined the in-vitro effects of allicin on the functioning of T cells related to their entry to inflamed extravascular sites. We found that allicin (20-100 microm) inhibits the SDF-1alpha (CXCL12)-induced T cell migration through fibronectin (FN), and that this inhibition is mediated by the down-regulation of (i) the reorganization of cortical actin and the subsequent T cell polarization, and (ii) T cell adhesion to FN. Moreover, allicin also inhibited T cell adhesion to endothelial cells and transendothelial migration. The mechanisms underlying these inhibitory effects of allicin are associated with its ability to down-regulate the phosphorylation of Pyk2, an intracellular member of the focal adhesion kinases, and to reduce the expression of the VCAM-1- and FN-specific alpha4beta1-integrin (VLA-4). The ability of allicin to down-regulate these chemokine-induced and VLA-4-mediated T cell functions explains its beneficial biological effects in processes where T cells play an important role and suggests that allicin may be used therapeutically with chronic inflammatory diseases.

Heparin-disaccharide affects T cells: inhibition of NF-kappaB activation, cell migration, and modulation of intracellular signaling.

We previously reported that disaccharides (DS), generated by enzymatic degradation of heparin or heparan sulfate, inhibit T cell-mediated immune reactions in rodents and regulate cytokine [tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNF-alpha), interleukin (IL)-8, and IL-1beta] secretion by T cells, macrophages, or intestinal epithelial cells. Here, we investigated the effects of a trisulfated heparin DS (3S-DS) on two aspects of T cell function: secretion of proinflammatory cytokines and migration to an inflamed site. 3S-DS down-regulated nuclear factor-kappaB activity and reduced the secretion of TNF-alpha and interferon-gamma (IFN-gamma) by anti-CD3-activated T cells. In addition, 3S-DS inhibited CXC chemokine ligand 12 (CXCL12; stromal cell-derived factor-1alpha)-dependent migration in vitro and in vivo and decreased CXCL12-induced T cell adhesion to the extracellular matrix glycoprotein, fibronectin (FN). This inhibition was accompanied by attenuation of CXCL12-induced Pyk2 phosphorylation but did not involve internalization of the CXCL12 receptor, CXCR4, or phosphorylation of extracellular-regulated kinase. Despite inhibiting CXCL12-induced adhesion, 3S-DS, on its own, induced T cell adhesion to FN, which was accompanied by phosphorylation of Pyk2. A monosulfated DS showed no effect. Taken together, these data provide evidence that 3S-DS can regulate inflammation by inducing and modulating T cell-signaling events, desensitizing CXCR4, and modulating T cell receptor-induced responses.