Results of Tendon Transfers in Radial Nerve Palsies: A New Evaluation Protocol.

Radial nerve palsies present a challenging clinical scenario, often leading to substantial functional impairment. This study focuses on evaluating the outcomes of tendon transfer surgeries in patients with post-traumatic radial nerve injuries. The radial nerve, vital for upper limb movements, faces various etiologies, such as trauma, compression, or idiopathy. Patients with radial nerve palsy encounter difficulties in daily activities, emphasizing the need for effective management strategies. The research introduces a novel evaluation protocol, aiming to comprehensively assess tendon transfer outcomes. This protocol incorporates functional movements of wrist and finger joints, encompassing both objective and subjective parameters. The retrospective study includes eleven patients treated between 2010 and 2022, with a minimum follow-up of one year post-surgery. Tendon transfers demonstrated positive results. The evaluation protocol covers a wide range of parameters, including wrist and finger mobility, thumb function, grip strength, and patient satisfaction. The results indicate successful restoration of motor function, with an average grip strength of 70% compared to the healthy arm. The proposed evaluation protocol facilitates standardized and reproducible assessment, minimizing subjective errors in clinical evaluations. Despite the study's limitations, such as a relatively small sample size, the findings underscore the effectiveness of tendon transfers in treating radial nerve palsies. The introduced evaluation scheme provides a comprehensive and reproducible approach to assess outcomes, contributing to the global standardization of tendon transfer assessments in radial nerve injuries.

Can we effectively manage chronic kidney disease with a precision-based pharmacotherapy plan? Where are we?

INTRODUCTION: In recent years, thanks to significant advances in basic science and biotechnologies, nephrology has witnessed a deeper understanding of the mechanisms leading to various conditions associated with or causing kidney disease, opening new perspectives for developing specific treatments. These new possibilities have brought increased challenges to physicians, who face with a new complexity in disease characterization and selection the right treatment for individual patients. AREAS COVERED: We chose four therapeutic situations: anaemia in chronic kidney disease (CKD), heart failure in CKD, IgA nephropathy (IgAN) and membranous nephropathy (MN). The literature search was made through PubMed. EXPERT OPINION: Anaemia management remains challenging in CKD; a personalized therapeutic approach is often needed. Identifying patients who could benefit from a specific therapy is also an important goal for patients with CKD and heart failure with reduced ejection fraction. Several new treatments are under clinical development for IgAN; interestingly, they target specifically the pathogenetic mechanisms of the disease. The understanding of MN pathogenesis as an autoimmune disease and the discovery of several autoantibodies allows a better characterization of patients. High-sensible techniques for lymphocyte counting open the possibility of more personalized use of anti CD20 therapies.

Drugs in Development to Treat IgA Nephropathy.

IgA nephropathy is a common glomerulonephritis consequent to the autoimmune response to aberrant glycosylated immunoglobulin (Ig) A antibodies. Although it has historically been considered a benign disease, it has since become clear that a substantial percentage of patients reach end-stage kidney failure over the years. Several therapeutic attempts have been proposed, with systemic steroids being the most prevalent, albeit burdened by possible serious adverse events. Thanks to the more in-depth knowledge of the pathogenesis of IgA nephropathy, new treatment targets have been identified and new drugs developed. In this narrative review, we summarise the molecules under clinical development for the treatment of IgA nephropathy. As a search strategy, we used PubMed, Google, ClinicalTrials.gov and abstracts from recent international congresses. TRF budesonide and sparsentan are the two molecules at a more advanced stage, just entering the market. Other promising agents are undergoing phase III clinical development. These include anti-APRIL and anti-BLyS/BAFF antibodies and some complement inhibitors. Other new possible strategies include spleen tyrosine kinase inhibitors, anti-CD40 ligands and anti-CD38 antibodies. In an era increasingly characterised by 'personalised medicine' and 'precision therapy' approaches and considering that the potential therapeutic armamentarium for IgA nephropathy will be very broad in the near future, the identification of biomarkers capable of helping the nephrologist to select the right drug for the right patient should be the focus of future studies.

Consensus commentary and position of the Italian Society of Nephrology on KDIGO controversies conference on novel anemia therapies in chronic kidney disease.

Hypoxia-inducible factor prolyl hydroxylase inhibitors (HIF-PHIs) are new drugs developed for the treatment of anemia associated with chronic kidney disease (CKD). This class of drugs stimulates endogenous erythropoietin production and, at the same time, improves iron absorption and mobilization of iron stores (less evident with daprodustat, vadadustat and enarodustat). Several studies have been published in the last few years showing that these agents are not inferior to standard therapy in correcting anemia associated with CKD. The efficacy of HIF-PHIs is coupled with a safety profile comparable to that of standard erythropoiesis stimulating agent (ESA) treatment. However, studies with HIF-PHIs were not long enough to definitively exclude the impact of new drugs on adverse events, such as cancer, death and possibly cardiovascular events, that usually occur after a long follow-up period. Kidney Disease: Improving Global Outcomes (KDIGO) recently reported the conclusions of the Controversies Conference on HIF-PHIs held in 2021. The goal of the present position paper endorsed by the Italian Society of Nephrology is to better adapt the conclusions of the latest KDIGO Conference on HIF-PHIs to the Italian context by reviewing the efficacy and safety of HIF-PHIs as well as their use in subpopulations of interest as emerged from more recent publications not discussed during the KDIGO Conference.

Iron biology.

Iron is a fundamental element for biological life, from bacteria to humans. Iron is essential for cell function and survival, energy production and metabolism, whereas increased levels cause oxidative stress. It is also a constituent of haemoglobin and thus it is necessary for oxygen transportation through the body. Given these multiple functions, the regulation of iron metabolism is complex and tight coupled with oxygen homeostasis at tissue and cellular levels, thanks to the interaction with the hypoxia inducible factor system. In patients with chronic kidney disease (CKD), iron deficiency significantly contributes to anaemia development. This frequently overlaps with chronic inflammation, causing iron- restricted erythropoiesis. To add further complexity, metabolic hyperferritinemia may, on one hand, increase the risk for CKD and, on the other, overlaps with functional iron deficiency. Excessive intracellular iron in certain cell types during CKD can also mediate cellular death (called ferroptosis), and contribute to the pathogenesis of kidney damage, atherosclerosis and vascular calcifications. This review is aimed at broadening the perspective of iron metabolism in the setting of CKD not just as a contributor to anaemia in CKD patients, but also as an important player with an impact on cell metabolism, renal fibrosis and the cardiovascular system.

A critical view on autoantibodies in lupus nephritis: Concrete knowledge based on evidence.

Deposition of autoantibodies in glomeruli is a key factor in the development of lupus nephritis (LN). For a long time, anti-dsDNA and anti-C1q antibodies were thought to be the main cause of the kidney damage. However, recent studies have shown that the list of autoantibidies that have renal tropism and deposit in the kidney in LN is increasing and the link between anti-dsDNA and renal pathology is weak due to potential confounders. Aspecific bindings of dsDNA with cationic antibodies and of anti-dsDNA with several renal antigens such as actinin, laminin, entactin, and annexinA2 raised doubts about the specific target of these antibodies in the kidney. Moreover, the isotype of anti-dsDNA in SLE and LN has never received adequate interest until the recent observation that IgG2 are preponderant over IgG1, IgG3 and IgG4. Based on the above background, recent studies investigated the involvement of anti-dsDNA IgG2 and of other antibodies in LN. It was concluded that circulating anti-dsDNA IgG2 levels do not distinguish between LN versus non-renal SLE, and, in patients with LN, their levels do not change over time. Circulating levels of other antibodies such as anti-ENO1 and anti-H2 IgG2 were, instead, higher in LN vs non-renal SLE at the time of diagnosis and decreased following therapies. Finally, new classes of renal antibodies that potentially modify the anti-inflammatory response in the kidney are emerging as new co-actors in the pathogenetic scenario. They have been defined as 'second wave antibodies' for the link with detoxifying mechanisms limiting the oxidative stress in glomeruli that are classically stimulated in a second phase of inflammation. These findings have important clinical implications that may modify the laboratory approach to LN. Serum levels of anti-ENO1 and anti-H2 IgG2 should be measured in the follow up of patients for designing the length of therapies and identify those patients who respond to treatments. Anti-SOD2 could help to monitor and potentiate the anti-inflammatory response in the kidney.

A novel scenario in the therapeutic management of anemia of chronic kidney disease: placement and use of roxadustat.

Anemia is a frequent and early chronic kidney disease (CKD) complication. Its management is currently based on oral or intravenous iron supplements, erythropoiesis-stimulating agents, and red blood cell transfusions, when the benefits of transfusion outweigh the risks. Anemia in CKD patients is underdiagnosed and undertreated. Current standard of care is associated with challenges and therefore new treatment approaches have been sought. Hypoxia-inducible factor-prolyl-hydroxylase enzyme inhibitors are a new class of orally administered drugs used to treat anemia associated with CKD. Small-molecule hypoxia-inducible factor-prolyl-hydroxylase inhibitors have a novel mechanism of action that activates the hypoxia-inducible factor (oxygen-sensing) pathway resulting in a coordinated erythropoietic response, leading to increased endogenous erythropoietin production, improved iron absorption and transport, and reduced hepcidin. Roxadustat is the first hypoxia-inducible factor-prolyl-hydroxylase inhibitor approved by the European Medicines Agency (EMA) and reimbursed in Italy by the Italian Medicines Agency (AIFA) for the treatment of adult patients with symptomatic CKD-related anemia. This authorization was based on the outcome of a globally-conducted phase 3 clinical trial program comprising eight pivotal multicenter randomized studies. In the absence of up-to-date guidelines, we performed a critical appraisal of the placement and use of roxadustat in this therapeutic context.

Hypoxia inducible factor prolyl hydroxylase inhibitors: what a meta-analysis could tell us.

Meta-analyses offer an estimate of the overall effect size and help address the inconsistency in findings across studies. The risk is the overemphasis on statistical significance while underrepresenting or misinterpreting clinical significance. There's also a lack of standardized methods for quantifying and reporting clinical significance and these measures are often missing or inconsistently reported in many meta-analyses, making it difficult for readers to determine the clinical relevance of the findings. A major merit of Minutolo's meta-analysis is to formally evaluate efficacy and safety of Hypoxia Inducible Factor Prolyl Hydroxylase Inhibitors (HIF-PHI) as class and as single agents in comparison with ESA, by selecting from only phase-3 randomised clinical trials (RCTs) that compared HIF-PHIs with erythropoiesis-stimulating agents (ESAs) in dialysis and non-dialysis patients. From a clinical perspective, the primary evaluation in this meta-analysis should have been the percentage of patients able to reach and maintain the target haemoglobin (Hb) levels throughout the trials but only a few RCTs selected this primary end point. Any claimed superiority of one drug over another should consider the selected doses. The amount of iron administered to patients, their iron stores and level of inflammation are important confounding factors that affect the reliability of any comparison.

Systemic and targeted steroids for the treatment of IgA nephropathy.

Immunoglobulin A nephropathy (IgAN) is a common glomerulonephritis partially correlated with mucosal immune system dysfunction. Progressive renal failure occurs in many patients, with about 30-50% of the patients with IgAN developing end-stage kidney disease (ESKD). Many treatments have been used for decades, despite uncertainty about their effectiveness and the ideal dose. Randomised controlled trials reported that systemic glucocorticoids can be an effective treatment for patients with persistent and significant proteinuria despite renin-angiotensin system inhibitors use possibly causing systemic side effects. The primary focus of IgAN management should be based on optimised supportive care, including renin-angiotensin system (RAS) blockade and now SGLT2 inhibitors. The novel targeted-release formulation (TRF) of budesonide has been tested to reduce the adverse events of systemic steroids by delivering the drug to the distal ileum. The local efficacy of TRF-budesonide may represent a novel and promising approach to treating IgAN. Two clinical trials showed that TRF-budesonide could significantly reduce proteinuria and haematuria and possibly preserve renal function while significantly reducing the side effects. However, the limited number of treated patients and the relatively short follow-up suggest caution before considering budesonide superior to the current six-months steroid pulses scheme. Long-term data on the efficacy and safety of TRF budesonide are awaited, together with the design of trials with a head-to-head comparison with systemic steroids before considering TRF-budesonide as the standard of care treatment for IgAN nephropathy.

Cardiovascular safety of current and emerging drugs to treat anaemia in chronic kidney disease: a safety review.

INTRODUCTION: Erythropoiesis-stimulating agents (ESAs) are the standard of treatment for anemia in chronic kidney disease. Hypoxia-inducible factor prolyl hydroxylase inhibitors (HIF-PHI) are small molecules that stimulate endogenous erythropoietin synthesis. AREAS COVERED: The cardiovascular safety of ESAs and HIF-PHIs. We performed a PubMed search using several key words, including anemia, chronic kidney disease, safety, erythropoiesis stimulating agents, HIF-PH inhibitors. EXPERT OPINION: ESAs are well-tolerated drugs with a long history of use; there are safety concerns, especially when targeting high hemoglobin levels. HIF-PHIs have comparable efficacy to ESAs in correcting anemia. Contrary to expectations, randomized phase 3 clinical trials have shown that overall HIF-PHIs were non-inferior to ESA or placebo with respect to the risk of cardiovascular endpoints. In addition, some phase 3 trials raised potential safety concerns regarding cardiovascular and thrombotic events, particularly in non-dialysis patients.Today, HIF-PHIs represent an additional treatment option for anemia in patients with chronic kidney disease. This has made the management of anemia in CKD more complex and heterogeneous. A better understanding of the mechanisms causing hypo-responsiveness to ESAs, combined with an individualized approach that balances ESAs, HIF-PHIs and iron doses, could increase the benefits while reducing the risks.

The anaemia treatment journey of CKD patients: from epoetins to hypoxia-inducible factor-prolyl hydroxylase inhibitors.

The discovery and development of erythropoiesis-stimulating agents was a journey lasting more than a century, leading to the cloning and approval of recombinant human erythropoietin (rHuEpo). This was an impressive clinical advance, providing the possibility of correcting the symptoms associated with anaemia in chronic kidney disease. Associated iron use was needed to produce new haemoglobin-containing blood red cells. Partial anaemia correction became the standard of care since trials aiming for near-normal haemoglobin levels showed a higher risk of adverse cardiovascular events. Hoping to reduce the cardiovascular risks, a new category of drugs was developed and tested. Hypoxia-inducible factor prolyl hydroxylase inhibitors (HIF-PHIs) are small molecules than can be formulated into orally active pills. They simulate reduced tissue oxygen pressure, thus stimulating the production of endogenous erythropoietin (Epo) by the kidneys and liver. Clinical trials with these compounds demonstrated that HIF-PHIs are at least as effective as rHuEpo in treating or correcting anaemia in non-dialysis and dialysis patients. Trials with HIF-PHIs did not demonstrate superiority in safety outcomes and in some trials, outcomes were worse. There was also a focus on oral delivery, a possible beneficial iron-sparing effect and the ability to overcome Epo resistance in inflamed patients. A negative effect is possible iron depletion, which may explain adverse outcomes.

Serum phosphate is associated with increased risk of bone fragility fractures in hemodialysis patients.

BACKGROUND: Bone fragility fractures are associated with high morbidity and mortality. This study analysed the association between the current biochemical parameters of CKD-MBD and bone fragility fractures in the COSMOS project. METHODS: COSMOS is a 3-year, multicentre, open cohort, prospective, observational study carried out in 6797 hemodialysis patients (227 centres from 20 European countries). The association of bone fragility fractures (outcome) with serum calcium, phosphate and PTH (exposure), was assessed using Standard Cox proportional hazards regression and Cox proportional hazards regression for recurrent events. Additional analyses were performed considering all-cause mortality as a competitive event for bone fragility fracture occurrence. Multivariable models were used in all strategies, with the fully adjusted model including a total of 24 variables. RESULTS: During a median follow-up of 24 months 252 (4%) patients experienced at least one bone fragility fracture (incident bone fragility fracture rate 28.5 per 1000 patient-years). In the fractured and non-fractured patients, the percentage of men was 43.7% and 61.4%, mean age 68.1 and 63.8 years and a haemodialysis vintage of 55.9 and 38.3 months respectively. Baseline serum phosphate > 6.1 mg/dL (reference value 4.3-6.1 mg/dL) was significantly associated with a higher bone fragility fracture risk in both regression models (HR: 1.53[95%CI: 1.10-2.13] and HR: 1.44[95%CI: 1.02-2.05]. The significant association persisted after competitive risk analysis (subHR: 1.42[95%CI: 1.02-1.98]) but the finding was not confirmed when serum phosphate was considered as a continuous variable. Baseline serum calcium showed no association with bone fragility fracture risk in any regression model. Baseline serum PTH > 800 pg/mL was significantly associated with a higher bone fragility fracture risk in both regression models, but the association disappeared after a competitive risk analysis. CONCLUSIONS: Hyperphosphatemia was independently and consistently associated with an increased bone fracture risk, suggesting serum phosphate could be a novel risk factor for bone fractures in hemodialysis patients.

Iron Parameters in Patients Treated with Roxadustat for Anemia of Chronic Kidney Disease.

Roxadustat is a novel agent with a distinct mechanism of action compared to erythropoiesis-stimulating agents (ESAs) and a potentially different combination of effects on iron parameters. This narrative review describes the effects of roxadustat on iron parameters and on hemoglobin levels in the context of iron supplementation in patients with anemia of non-dialysis-dependent (NDD) or dialysis-dependent (DD) chronic kidney disease (CKD). Roxadustat use was associated with a greater reduction in serum ferritin levels than seen with ESAs and an increase in serum iron levels compared to a decrease with ESAs. Decreases in transferrin saturation in patients treated with roxadustat were relatively small and, in the case of patients with NDD CKD, not observed by Week 52. These changes reflect the concomitant increases in both serum iron and total iron-binding capacity. Compared to placebo and an ESA, roxadustat improved iron availability and increased erythropoiesis while requiring less intravenous iron use. Hepcidin levels generally decreased in patients who received roxadustat compared to baseline values in all CKD populations; these decreases appear to be more robust with roxadustat than with an ESA or placebo. The mechanisms behind the effects of roxadustat and ESAs on iron availability and stores and erythropoiesis appear to differ and should be considered holistically when treating anemia of CKD.

Mineral and bone metabolism markers and mortality in diabetic patients on haemodialysis.

BACKGROUND: Diabetic patients on haemodialysis have a higher risk of mortality than non-diabetic patients. The aim of this COSMOS (Current management of secondary hyperparathyroidism: a multicentre observational study) analysis was to assess whether bone and mineral laboratory values [calcium, phosphorus and parathyroid hormone (PTH)] contribute to this risk. METHODS: COSMOS is a multicentre, open-cohort, 3-year prospective study, which includes 6797 patients from 227 randomly selected dialysis centres in 20 European countries. The association between mortality and calcium, phosphate or PTH was assessed using Cox proportional hazard regression models using both penalized splines smoothing and categorization according to KDIGO guidelines. The effect modification of the association between the relative risk of mortality and serum calcium, phosphate or PTH by diabetes was assessed. RESULTS: There was a statistically significant effect modification of the association between the relative risk of mortality and serum PTH by diabetes (P = .011). The slope of the curve of the association between increasing values of PTH and relative risk of mortality was steeper for diabetic compared with non-diabetic patients, mainly for high levels of PTH. In addition, high serum PTH (>9 times the normal values) was significantly associated with a higher relative risk of mortality in diabetic patients but not in non-diabetic patients [1.53 (95% confidence interval 1.07-2.19) and 1.17 (95% confidence interval 0.91-1.52)]. No significant effect modification of the association between the relative risk of mortality and serum calcium or phosphate by diabetes was found (P = .2 and P = .059, respectively). CONCLUSION: The results show a different association of PTH with the relative risk of mortality in diabetic and non-diabetic patients. These findings could have relevant implications for the diagnosis and treatment of chronic kidney disease-mineral and bone disorders.

Quality of life: a crucial aspect for the patients, a neglected goal in the treatment of anemia in patients with CKD.

The aim of any treatment should be to add life to years and not simply years to life. Surprisingly, the label of erythropoiesis-stimulating agents for anemia treatment in chronic kidney disease does not include the indication for improving quality of life. Merit of the placebo-controlled Anemia Studies in Chronic Kidney Disease (CKD): Erythropoiesis Via a Novel Prolyl Hydroxylase Inhibitor (PHI) Daprodustat in Non-Dialysis Subjects Evaluating Hemoglobin (Hgb) and Quality of Life (ASCEND-NHQ) trial was to address this issue by analyzing the effect of anemia treatment with daprodustat aimed at the hemoglobin target range of 11-12 g/dl; the trial demonstrates that partial anemia correction improved quality of life.

Change in Albuminuria and GFR Slope as Joint Surrogate End Points for Kidney Failure: Implications for Phase 2 Clinical Trials in CKD.

SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT: Changes in albuminuria and GFR slope are individually used as surrogate end points in clinical trials of CKD progression, and studies have demonstrated that each is associated with treatment effects on clinical end points. In this study, the authors sought to develop a conceptual framework that combines both surrogate end points to better predict treatment effects on clinical end points in Phase 2 trials. The results demonstrate that information from the combined treatment effects on albuminuria and GFR slope improves the prediction of treatment effects on the clinical end point for Phase 2 trials with sample sizes between 100 and 200 patients and duration of follow-up ranging from 1 to 2 years. These findings may help inform design of clinical trials for interventions aimed at slowing CKD progression. BACKGROUND: Changes in log urinary albumin-to-creatinine ratio (UACR) and GFR slope are individually used as surrogate end points in clinical trials of CKD progression. Whether combining these surrogate end points might strengthen inferences about clinical benefit is unknown. METHODS: Using Bayesian meta-regressions across 41 randomized trials of CKD progression, we characterized the combined relationship between the treatment effects on the clinical end point (sustained doubling of serum creatinine, GFR <15 ml/min per 1.73 m 2 , or kidney failure) and treatment effects on UACR change and chronic GFR slope after 3 months. We applied the results to the design of Phase 2 trials on the basis of UACR change and chronic GFR slope in combination. RESULTS: Treatment effects on the clinical end point were strongly associated with the combination of treatment effects on UACR change and chronic slope. The posterior median meta-regression coefficients for treatment effects were -0.41 (95% Bayesian Credible Interval, -0.64 to -0.17) per 1 ml/min per 1.73 m 2 per year for the treatment effect on GFR slope and -0.06 (95% Bayesian Credible Interval, -0.90 to 0.77) for the treatment effect on UACR change. The predicted probability of clinical benefit when considering both surrogates was determined primarily by estimated treatment effects on UACR when sample size was small (approximately 60 patients per treatment arm) and follow-up brief (approximately 1 year), with the importance of GFR slope increasing for larger sample sizes and longer follow-up. CONCLUSIONS: In Phase 2 trials of CKD with sample sizes of 100-200 patients per arm and follow-up between 1 and 2 years, combining information from treatment effects on UACR change and GFR slope improved the prediction of treatment effects on clinical end points.

Evaluation of Variation in the Performance of GFR Slope as a Surrogate End Point for Kidney Failure in Clinical Trials that Differ by Severity of CKD.

BACKGROUND: The GFR slope has been evaluated as a surrogate end point for kidney failure in meta-analyses on a broad collection of randomized controlled trials (RCTs) in CKD. These analyses evaluate how accurately a treatment effect on GFR slope predicts a treatment effect on kidney failure. We sought to determine whether severity of CKD in the patient population modifies the performance of GFR slope. METHODS: We performed Bayesian meta-regression analyses on 66 CKD RCTs to evaluate associations between effects on GFR slope (the chronic slope and the total slope over 3 years, expressed as mean differences in ml/min per 1.73 m2/yr) and those of the clinical end point (doubling of serum creatinine, GFR <15 ml/min per 1.73 m2, or kidney failure, expressed as a log-hazard ratio), where models allow interaction with variables defining disease severity. We evaluated three measures (baseline GFR in 10 ml/min per 1.73 m2, baseline urine albumin-to-creatinine ratio [UACR] per doubling in mg/g, and CKD progression rate defined as the control arm chronic slope, in ml/min per 1.73 m2/yr) and defined strong evidence for modification when 95% posterior credible intervals for interaction terms excluded zero. RESULTS: There was no evidence for modification by disease severity when evaluating 3-year total slope (95% credible intervals for the interaction slope: baseline GFR [-0.05 to 0.03]; baseline UACR [-0.02 to 0.04]; CKD progression rate [-0.07 to 0.02]). There was strong evidence for modification in evaluations of chronic slope (95% credible intervals: baseline GFR [0.02 to 0.11]; baseline UACR [-0.11 to -0.02]; CKD progression rate [0.01 to 0.15]). CONCLUSIONS: These analyses indicate consistency of the performance of total slope over 3 years, which provides further evidence for its validity as a surrogate end point in RCTs representing varied CKD populations.