Superhydrophobic Array Devices for the Enhanced Formation of 3D Cancer Models.

During the metastatic cascade, cancer cells travel through the bloodstream as circulating tumor cells (CTCs) to a secondary site. Clustered CTCs have greater shear stress and treatment resistance, yet their biology remains poorly understood. We therefore engineered a tunable superhydrophobic array device (SHArD). The SHArD-C was applied to culture a clinically relevant model of CTC clusters. Using our device, we cultured a model of cancer cell aggregates of various sizes with immortalized cancer cell lines. These exhibited higher E-cadherin expression and are significantly more capable of surviving high fluid shear stress-related forces compared to single cells and model clusters grown using the control method, helping to explain why clustering may provide a metastatic advantage. Additionally, the SHArD-S, when compared with the AggreWell 800 method, provides a more consistent spheroid-forming device culturing reproducible sizes of spheroids for multiple cancer cell lines. Overall, we designed, fabricated, and validated an easily tunable engineered device which grows physiologically relevant three-dimensional (3D) cancer models containing tens to thousands of cells.

Retention of E-selectin functionalized liposome fanny packs on Jurkat cells following invasion through collagen.

Circulating immune cells are an appealing candidate to serve as carriers of therapeutic cargo via nanoparticles conjugated to their surface, for several reasons: these cells are highly migratory and can squeeze through small pores of diameter smaller than their resting size; they are easily accessible in the peripheral blood via minimally invasive IV injection of particles, or can be harvested, processed ex vivo, and reintroduced to the body; they are adept at traveling through the circulation with minimal destruction and thus have access to various tissue beds of the body; and immune cells have built-in signal transduction machinery which allows them to actively engage in chemotaxis and home to regions of the tissue containing tumors, invading microorganisms, or injuries in need of wound healing. In this study, we sought to examine and quantify the degree to which nanoscale liposomes, functionalized with E-selectin adhesion receptor, could bind to a model T cell line and remain on the surface of the cells as they migrate through collagen gels of varying density in a transwell cell migration chamber. It is demonstrated that physiological levels of fluid shear stress are necessary to achieve optimal binding of the E-selectin liposomes to the cell surface as expected, and that CD3/CD28 antibody activation of the T cells was not necessary for effective liposome binding. Nanoscale liposomes were successfully conveyed by the migrating cells across a layer of rat tail type 1 collagen gel ranging in composition from 1 to 3 mg/mL. The relative fraction of liposomes carried through the collagen decreased at higher collagen density, likely due to the expected decrease in average pore size, and increased fiber content in the gels. Taken together, these results support the idea that T cells could be an effective cellular carrier of therapeutic molecules either attached to the surface of nanoscale liposomes or encapsulated within their interior.

Dual Affinity Nanoparticles for the Transport of Therapeutics from Carrier Cells to Target Cells under Physiological Flow Conditions.

In this study, a novel two-stage nanoparticle delivery platform was developed based on the dual functionalization of a liposome with moieties that have fundamentally different strengths of adhesion and binding kinetics. The essential concept of this system is that the nanoparticles are designed to loosely bind to the carrier cell until they come into contact with the target cell, to which they bind with greater strength. This allows the nanoparticle to be transferred from one cell to another, circulating for longer periods of time in the blood and delivering the therapeutic agent to the target circulating tumor cell. Liposomes were prepared using the lipid cake and extrusion technique, then functionalized with E-selectin (ES), anti-cell surface vimentin antibody fragments, and TRAIL via click chemistry. The binding of dual affinity (DA) liposomes was confirmed with the neutrophil-like cell line PLB985, the colorectal cancer cell line HCT116, and healthy granulocytes isolated from peripheral whole blood under physiologically relevant fluid shear stress (FSS) in a cone-and-plate viscometer. Transfer of the DA liposomes from PLB985 to HCT116 cells under FSS was greater compared to all of the control liposome formulations. Additionally, DA liposomes demonstrated enhanced apoptotic effects on HCT116 cells in whole blood under FSS, surpassing the efficacy of the ES/TRAIL liposomes previously developed by the King Lab.

Matrix stiffness induces epithelial-to-mesenchymal transition via Piezo1-regulated calcium flux in prostate cancer cells.

Cells utilize calcium channels as one of the main signaling mechanisms to sense changes in the extracellular space and convert these changes to intracellular signals. Calcium regulates several key signaling networks, such as the induction of EMT. The current study expands on the understanding of how EMT is controlled via the mechanosensitive calcium channel Piezo1 in cancerous cells, which senses changes in the extracellular matrix stiffness. We model the biophysical environment of healthy and cancerous prostate tissue using polyacrylamide gels of different stiffnesses. Significant increases in calcium steady-state concentration, vimentin expression, and aspect ratio, and decreases in E-cadherin expression were observed by increasing matrix stiffness and also after treatment with Yoda1, a chemical agonist of Piezo1. Overall, this study concludes that Piezo1-regulated calcium flux plays a role in prostate cancer cell metastatic potential by sensing changes in ECM stiffness and modulating EMT markers.

A Reactive Oxygen Species-Scavenging 'Stealth' Polymer, Poly(thioglycidyl glycerol), Outperforms Poly(ethylene glycol) in Protein Conjugates and Nanocarriers and Enhances Protein Stability to Environmental and Biological Stressors.

This study addresses well-known shortcomings of poly(ethylene glycol) (PEG)-based conjugates. PEGylation is by far the most common method employed to overcome immunogenicity and suboptimal pharmacokinetics of, for example, therapeutic proteins but has significant drawbacks. First, PEG offers no protection from denaturation during lyophilization, storage, or oxidation (e.g., by biological oxidants, reactive oxygen species); second, PEG's inherent immunogenicity, leading to hypersensitivity and accelerated blood clearance (ABC), is a growing concern. We have here developed an 'active-stealth' polymer, poly(thioglycidyl glycerol)(PTGG), which in human plasma is less immunogenic than PEG (35% less complement activation) and features a reactive oxygen species-scavenging and anti-inflammatory action (∼50% less TNF-α in LPS-stimulated macrophages at only 0.1 mg/mL). PTGG was conjugated to proteins via a one-pot process; molar mass- and grafting density-matched PTGG-lysozyme conjugates were superior to their PEG analogues in terms of enzyme activity and stability against freeze-drying or oxidation; the latter is due to sacrificial oxidation of methionine-mimetic PTGG chains. Both in mice and rats, PTGG-ovalbumin displayed circulation half-lives up to twice as long as PEG-ovalbumin, but most importantly─and differently from PEG─without any associated ABC effect seen either in the time dependency of blood concentration, in the liver/splenic accumulation, or in antipolymer IgM/IgG titers. Furthermore, similar pharmacokinetic results were obtained with PTGGylated/PEGylated liposomal nanocarriers. PTGG's 'active-stealth' character therefore makes it a highly promising alternative to PEG for conjugation to biologics or nanocarriers.

Piezo1 Mechano-Activation Is Augmented by Resveratrol and Differs between Colorectal Cancer Cells of Primary and Metastatic Origin.

Cancer cells must survive aberrant fluid shear stress (FSS) in the circulation to metastasize. Herein, we investigate the role that FSS has on colorectal cancer cell apoptosis, proliferation, membrane damage, calcium influx, and therapeutic sensitization. We tested this using SW480 (primary tumor) and SW620 cells (lymph node metastasis) derived from the same patient. The cells were exposed to either shear pulses, modeling millisecond intervals of high FSS seen in regions of turbulent flow, or sustained shear to model average magnitudes experienced by circulating tumor cells. SW480 cells were significantly more sensitive to FSS-induced death than their metastatic counterparts. Shear pulses caused significant cell membrane damage, while constant shear decreased cell proliferation and increased the expression of CD133. To investigate the role of mechanosensitive ion channels, we treated cells with the Piezo1 agonist Yoda1, which increased intracellular calcium. Pretreatment with resveratrol further increased the calcium influx via the lipid-raft colocalization of Piezo1. However, minimal changes in apoptosis were observed due to calcium saturation, as predicted via a computational model of apoptosis. Furthermore, SW480 cells had increased levels of Piezo1, calcium influx, and TRAIL-mediated apoptosis compared to SW620 cells, highlighting differences in the mechano-activation of metastatic cells, which may be a necessary element for successful dissemination in vivo.

Fluid shear stress enhances T cell activation through Piezo1.

BACKGROUND: T cell activation is a mechanical process as much as it is a biochemical process. In this study, we used a cone-and-plate viscometer system to treat Jurkat and primary human T cells with fluid shear stress (FSS) to enhance the activation of the T cells through mechanical means. RESULTS: The FSS treatment of T cells in combination with soluble and bead-bound CD3/CD28 antibodies increased the activation of signaling proteins essential for T cell activation, such as zeta-chain-associated protein kinase-70 (ZAP70), nuclear factor of activated T cells (NFAT), nuclear factor kappa B (NF-κB), and AP-1 (activator protein 1). The FSS treatment also enhanced the expression of the cytokines tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNF-α), interleukin 2 (IL-2), and interferon gamma (IFN-γ), which are necessary for sustained T cell activation and function. The enhanced activation of T cells by FSS was calcium dependent. The calcium signaling was controlled by the mechanosensitive ion channel Piezo1, as GsMTx-4 and Piezo1 knockout reduced ZAP70 phosphorylation by FSS. CONCLUSIONS: These results demonstrate an intriguing new dynamic to T cell activation, as the circulatory system consists of different magnitudes of FSS and could have a proinflammatory role in T cell function. The results also identify a potential pathophysiological relationship between T cell activation and FSS, as hypertension is a disease characterized by abnormal blood flow and is correlated with multiple autoimmune diseases.

Oxaliplatin resistance in colorectal cancer enhances TRAIL sensitivity via death receptor 4 upregulation and lipid raft localization.

Colorectal cancer (CRC) remains a leading cause of cancer death, and its mortality is associated with metastasis and chemoresistance. We demonstrate that oxaliplatin-resistant CRC cells are sensitized to TRAIL-mediated apoptosis. Oxaliplatin-resistant cells exhibited transcriptional downregulation of caspase-10, but this had minimal effects on TRAIL sensitivity following CRISPR-Cas9 deletion of caspase-10 in parental cells. Sensitization effects in oxaliplatin-resistant cells were found to be a result of increased DR4, as well as significantly enhanced DR4 palmitoylation and translocation into lipid rafts. Raft perturbation via nystatin and resveratrol significantly altered DR4/raft colocalization and TRAIL sensitivity. Blood samples from metastatic CRC patients were treated with TRAIL liposomes, and a 57% reduction of viable circulating tumor cells (CTCs) was observed. Increased DR4/lipid raft colocalization in CTCs was found to correspond with increased oxaliplatin resistance and increased efficacy of TRAIL liposomes. To our knowledge, this is the first study to investigate the role of lipid rafts in primary CTCs.

Activation of Piezo1 sensitizes cells to TRAIL-mediated apoptosis through mitochondrial outer membrane permeability.

TRAIL specifically induces apoptosis in cancer cells without affecting healthy cells. However, TRAIL's cancer cytotoxicity was insufficient in clinical trials. Circulatory-shear stress is known to sensitize cancer cells to TRAIL. In this study, we examine the mechanism of this TRAIL sensitization with the goal of translating it to static conditions. GsMTx-4, a Piezo1 inhibitor, was found to reduce shear stress-related TRAIL sensitization, implicating Piezo1 activation as a potential TRAIL-sensitizer. The Piezo1 agonist Yoda1 recreated shear stress-induced TRAIL sensitization under static conditions. A significant increase in apoptosis occurred when PC3, COLO 205, or MDA-MB-231 cells were treated with Yoda1 and TRAIL in combination, but not in Bax-deficient DU145 cells. Calpastatin inhibited apoptosis in Yoda1-TRAIL treated cells, indicating that calpain activation is necessary for apoptosis by Yoda1 and TRAIL. Yoda1 and TRAIL treated PC3 cells showed increased mitochondrial outer membrane permeability (MOMP), mitochondrial depolarization, and activated Bax. This implies that Piezo1 activation sensitizes cancer cells to TRAIL through a calcium influx that activates calpains. The Calpains then induce MOMP by enhancing Bax activation. From these experiments a computational model was developed to simulate apoptosis for cells treated with TRAIL and increased calcium. The computational model elucidated the proapoptotic or antiapoptotic roles of Bax, Bcl-2, XIAP, and other proteins important in the mitochondrial-apoptotic signaling pathway.