The direct and indirect pathways of the basal ganglia antagonistically influence cortical activity and perceptual decisions.

The striatum, the main input nucleus of the basal ganglia, receives topographically organized input from the cortex and gives rise to the direct and indirect output pathways, which have antagonistic effects on basal ganglia output directed to the cortex. We optogenetically stimulated the direct and indirect pathways in a visual and a working memory task in mice that responded by licking. Unilateral direct pathway stimulation increased the probability of lick responses toward the contralateral, non-stimulated side and increased cortical activity globally. In contrast, indirect pathway stimulation increased the probability of responses toward the stimulated side and decreased activity in the stimulated hemisphere. Moreover, direct pathway stimulation enhanced the neural representation of a contralateral visual stimulus during the delay of the working memory task, whereas indirect pathway stimulation had the opposite effect. Our results demonstrate how these two pathways influence perceptual decisions and working memory and modify activity in the dorsal cortex.

Back to the Roots: Agrobacterium-Specific Phages Show Potential to Disinfect Nutrient Solution from Hydroponic Greenhouses.

Agrobacterium biovar 1 is a soilborne plant pathogen with the ability to colonize the irrigation system of greenhouses, causing hairy root disease (HRD). Currently, management focuses on using hydrogen peroxide to disinfect the nutrient solution, but due to the emergence of resistant strains, its efficacy and sustainability are questioned. Using a relevant collection of pathogenic Agrobacterium biovar 1 strains, OLIVR1 to 6, six phages specific to this pathogen and belonging to three different genera were isolated from Agrobacterium biovar 1-infected greenhouses. All phages were named OLIVR, referring to their location of isolation, Onze-Lieve-Vrouwe-Waver, and were characterized by whole-genome analysis, confirming their strictly lytic lifestyle. They remained stable under greenhouse-relevant conditions. To assess the efficacy of the phages, their ability to disinfect greenhouse nutrient solution inoculated with agrobacteria was tested. Each of the phages infected their host, but their ability to decrease the bacterial concentration differed. For instance, OLIVR1 reduced the bacterial concentration with 4 log units without phage resistance emerging. While OLIVR4 and OLIVR5 were also infectious in nutrient solution, they did not always decrease the bacterial load below the limit of detection, and phage resistance emerged. Finally, the mutations causing phage resistance by receptor modification were identified. For OLIVR4-resistant Agrobacterium isolates, but not for OLIVR5-resistant isolates, motility decreased. Together, these data show the potential of some of these phages as disinfectant of nutrient solution, and they might be a valuable tool to tackle HRD. IMPORTANCE Hairy root disease, caused by rhizogenic Agrobacterium biovar 1 is a rapidly emerging bacterial disease worldwide. It affects tomatoes, cucumbers, eggplant, and bell pepper, causing high yield losses in hydroponic greenhouses. Recent findings suggest that the current management practices, mainly focusing on UV-C and hydrogen peroxide to disinfect contaminated water, have a questionable efficacy. Hence, we investigate the potential of phages as a biological means of preventing this disease. Using a diverse collection of Agrobacterium biovar 1, we isolated three different phage species that together infect 75% of the collection. Since these phages are strictly lytic, while remaining both stable and infectious under greenhouse-relevant conditions, they might be suitable candidates for biological control.

Cytokine dependent hematopoietic cell linker (CLNK) is highly elevated in blood transfusion dependent beta-thalassemia major patients.

BACKGROUND: Transfusion-dependent ß-thalassemia (TDT) is a severe form of thalassemia caused by mutations in the ß-globin gene, resulting in partial or complete deficiency of ß-globin chains. This deficiency results in oxidative stress, dyserythropoiesis, and chronic anemia. Cytokine-dependent hematopoietic cell linker (CLNK) belongs to adaptor proteins that have the capacity to interact with multiple signalling proteins and function in the organisation of the molecular components required for signal transduction. OBJECTIVES: This is the first study which measured serum CLNK in TDT patients and examines the correlation between CLNK and iron overload biomarkers. PATIENTS AND METHODS: Sixty children with TDT and 30 normal children (aged 3-12 years old) participated in the present study. The patients were on blood transfusion as a part of their treatment regimen. Serum C-reactive protein was negative in all samples. RESULTS: The results showed significantly higher (P<0.001) serum CLNK levels in TDT patients as compared with controls. The TDT diagnosis explained 19.4% of the variance in CLNK levels. The increased levels of CLNK were significantly associated with indicants of iron overload, namely increased ferritin levels. CONCLUSIONS: Increased CLNK levels in TDT may be explained by reciprocal effects between immune signalling and immature erythrocytes, which release soluble receptors and signalling molecules, including CLNK, in the blood.

Increasing Nrf2 Activity as a Treatment Approach in Neuropsychiatry.

Nuclear factor erythroid 2-related factor 2 (Nrf2) is a transcription factor encoded by NFE2L2. Under oxidative stress, Nrf2 does not undergo its normal cytoplasmic degradation but instead travels to the nucleus, where it binds to a DNA promoter and initiates transcription of anti-oxidative genes. Nrf2 upregulation is associated with increased cellular levels of glutathione disulfide, glutathione peroxidase, glutathione transferases, thioredoxin and thioredoxin reductase. Given its key role in governing the cellular antioxidant response, upregulation of Nrf2 has been suggested as a common therapeutic target in neuropsychiatric illnesses such as major depressive disorder, bipolar disorder and schizophrenia, which are associated with chronic oxidative and nitrosative stress, characterised by elevated levels of reactive oxygen species, nitric oxide and peroxynitrite. These processes lead to extensive lipid peroxidation, protein oxidation and carbonylation, and oxidative damage to nuclear and mitochondrial DNA. Intake of N-acetylcysteine, coenzyme Q10 and melatonin is accompanied by increased Nrf2 activity. N-acetylcysteine intake is associated with improved cerebral mitochondrial function, decreased central oxidative and nitrosative stress, reduced neuroinflammation, alleviation of endoplasmic reticular stress and suppression of the unfolded protein response. Coenzyme Q10, which acts as a superoxide scavenger in neuroglial mitochondria, instigates mitohormesis, ameliorates lipid peroxidation in the inner mitochondrial membrane, activates uncoupling proteins, promotes mitochondrial biogenesis and has positive effects on the plasma membrane redox system. Melatonin, which scavenges mitochondrial free radicals, inhibits mitochondrial nitric oxide synthase, restores mitochondrial calcium homeostasis, deacetylates and activates mitochondrial SIRT3, ameliorates increased permeability of the blood-brain barrier and intestine and counters neuroinflammation and glutamate excitotoxicity.

The interplay between oxidative stress and bioenergetic failure in neuropsychiatric illnesses: can we explain it and can we treat it?

Nitro-oxidative stress and lowered antioxidant defences play a key role in neuropsychiatric disorders such as major depression, bipolar disorder and schizophrenia. The first part of this paper details mitochondrial antioxidant mechanisms and their importance in reactive oxygen species (ROS) detoxification, including details of NO networks, the roles of H2O2 and the thioredoxin/peroxiredoxin system, and the relationship between mitochondrial respiration and NADPH production. The second part highlights and identifies the causes of the multiple pathological sequelae arising from self-amplifying increases in mitochondrial ROS production and bioenergetic failure. Particular attention is paid to NAD+ depletion as a core cause of pathology; detrimental effects of raised ROS and reactive nitrogen species on ATP and NADPH generation; detrimental effects of oxidative and nitrosative stress on the glutathione and thioredoxin systems; and the NAD+-induced signalling cascade, including the roles of SIRT1, SIRT3, PGC-1α, the FOXO family of transcription factors, Nrf1 and Nrf2. The third part discusses proposed therapeutic interventions aimed at mitigating such pathology, including the use of the NAD+ precursors nicotinamide mononucleotide and nicotinamide riboside, both of which rapidly elevate levels of NAD+ in the brain and periphery following oral administration; coenzyme Q10 which, when given with the aim of improving mitochondrial function and reducing nitro-oxidative stress in the brain, may be administered via the use of mitoquinone, which is in essence ubiquinone with an attached triphenylphosphonium cation; and N-acetylcysteine, which is associated with improved mitochondrial function in the brain and produces significant decreases in oxidative and nitrosative stress in a dose-dependent manner.

Mitochondria and immunity in chronic fatigue syndrome.

It is widely accepted that the pathophysiology and treatment of myalgic encephalomyelitis/chronic fatigue syndrome (ME/CFS) could be considerably improved. The heterogeneity of ME/CFS and the confusion over its classification have undoubtedly contributed to this, although this would seem a consequence of the complexity of the array of ME/CFS presentations and high levels of diverse comorbidities. This article reviews the biological underpinnings of ME/CFS presentations, including the interacting roles of the gut microbiome/permeability, endogenous opioidergic system, immune cell mitochondria, autonomic nervous system, microRNA-155, viral infection/re-awakening and leptin as well as melatonin and the circadian rhythm. This details not only relevant pathophysiological processes and treatment options, but also highlights future research directions. Due to the complexity of interacting systems in ME/CFS pathophysiology, clarification as to its biological underpinnings is likely to considerably contribute to the understanding and treatment of other complex and poorly managed conditions, including fibromyalgia, depression, migraine, and dementia. The gut and immune cell mitochondria are proposed to be two important hubs that interact with the circadian rhythm in driving ME/CFS pathophysiology.

No long-term tunnel enlargement following anterior cruciate ligament reconstruction using autograft hamstring tendon with dual suspensory fixation.

PURPOSE: Bone tunnel widening following anterior cruciate ligament reconstruction (ACLR) is well documented, although the aetiology and clinical significance of this phenomenon remain unclear. At mid-term follow-up, a greater prevalence of tunnel enlargement has been reported with the use of hamstring (HS) grafts. However, there are paucity of data on what happens in the longer term. The aim of this study was to assess the change in femoral and tibial tunnel dimensions 15 years after four-strand HS ACLR. METHODS: This is a retrospective review of 15 patients who underwent arthroscopic ACLR using HS autograft tendon and were followed up radiographically at 4 months, 2 years and 15 years. Suspensory fixation was used for both ends of the graft. The diameters of the bone tunnels on posteroanterior (PA) and lateral radiographs were measured using digital callipers. Repeated measures analysis of variance (ANOVA) was used to examine change in tunnel width over time. RESULTS: Radiographic tunnel width did not significantly change between 4 months and 2 years. However, a significant decrease in width was found for both the femoral and tibial tunnels between the 2- and 15-year follow-up (P < 0.01): the femoral tunnel decreased by 50% and 51% in the PA and lateral views, respectively; the tibial tunnel decreased by 77% and 91% in the PA and lateral views respectively. There was no significant correlation between femoral or tibial tunnel width and flexion and extension deficits or with side to side differences in anterior tibial laxity at 15 years. CONCLUSIONS: This radiographic follow-up study of bone tunnel widening following HS ACLR with suspensory fixation demonstrated that tunnel width did not increase beyond 4 months and in fact had decreased significantly at long-term (15 years) follow-up. There was no correlation between tunnel width changes and clinical assessment of flexion and extension deficits or with side-to-side anterior knee laxity at 15-years. LEVEL OF EVIDENCE: IV.

Completion of BAX recruitment correlates with mitochondrial fission during apoptosis.

BAX, a member of the BCL2 gene family, controls the committed step of the intrinsic apoptotic program. Mitochondrial fragmentation is a commonly observed feature of apoptosis, which occurs through the process of mitochondrial fission. BAX has consistently been associated with mitochondrial fission, yet how BAX participates in the process of mitochondrial fragmentation during apoptosis remains to be tested. Time-lapse imaging of BAX recruitment and mitochondrial fragmentation demonstrates that rapid mitochondrial fragmentation during apoptosis occurs after the complete recruitment of BAX to the mitochondrial outer membrane (MOM). The requirement of a fully functioning BAX protein for the fission process was demonstrated further in BAX/BAK-deficient HCT116 cells expressing a P168A mutant of BAX. The mutant performed fusion to restore the mitochondrial network. but was not demonstrably recruited to the MOM after apoptosis induction. Under these conditions, mitochondrial fragmentation was blocked. Additionally, we show that loss of the fission protein, dynamin-like protein 1 (DRP1), does not temporally affect the initiation time or rate of BAX recruitment, but does reduce the final level of BAX recruited to the MOM during the late phase of BAX recruitment. These correlative observations suggest a model where late-stage BAX oligomers play a functional part of the mitochondrial fragmentation machinery in apoptotic cells.

Increased adhesion molecule levels in systemic lupus erythematosus: relationships with severity of illness, autoimmunity, metabolic syndrome and cortisol levels.

Background This study was performed to assess adhesion molecules in systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE). Methods This case-control study examined 126 SLE patients and 48 healthy individuals. Blood levels of six adhesion molecules, cortisol, nuclear autoantibody (ANA) and anti-double stranded DNA (anti-dsDNA) titers were measured, while disease activity was assessed using the SLE Disease Activity Index (SLEDAI) score. Results Platelet endothelial cell adhesion molecule 1 (PECAM-1), vascular cell adhesion molecule 1 (VCAM-1), E-selectin, P-selectin, and plasminogen activator inhibitor type-1 (PAI-1) were significantly higher in SLE patients than in controls. Binary logistic regression analysis showed that PECAM-1 and PAI-1 predicted SLE with a sensitivity of 86.5% and a specificity of 81.3%. ANA titers were significantly and positively associated with PECAM-1, VCAM-1, E-selectin, and PAI-1, whereas there were no associations between anti-dsDNA titers and adhesion molecules. Cortisol was negatively associated with PCAM-1 and ICAM-1. There were significant associations between metabolic syndrome (MetS) and E-selectin and PAI-1. 14.8% of the variance in the SLEDAI score was explained by the regression on PECAM-1 and MetS. Conclusions Our data show that adhesion molecules, especially PECAM-1, are significantly associated with SLE and disease activity, suggesting that they play a role in SLE pathophysiology. While MetS, ANA titers and cortisol levels modulate adhesion molecule levels, these associations do not explain the increased levels of adhesion molecules in SLE. Increased levels of adhesion molecules are new drug targets in SLE.

Cell Death Pathways: a Novel Therapeutic Approach for Neuroscientists.

In the first part, the following mechanisms involved in different forms of cell death are considered, with a view to identifying potential therapeutic targets: tumour necrosis factor receptors (TNFRs) and their engagement by tumour necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-α); poly [ADP-ribose] polymerase (PARP)-1 cleavage; the apoptosis signalling kinase (ASK)-c-Jun N-terminal kinase (JNK) axis; lysosomal permeability; activation of programmed necrotic cell death; oxidative stress, caspase-3 inhibition and parthanatos; activation of inflammasomes by reactive oxygen species and the development of pyroptosis; oxidative stress, calcium dyshomeostasis and iron in the development of lysosomal-mediated necrosis and lysosomal membrane permeability; and oxidative stress, lipid peroxidation, iron dyshomeostasis and ferroptosis. In the second part, there is a consideration of the role of lethal and sub-lethal activation of these pathways in the pathogenesis and pathophysiology of neurodegenerative and neuroprogressive disorders, with particular reference to the TNF-α-TNFR signalling axis; dysregulation of ASK-1-JNK signalling; prolonged or chronic PARP-1 activation; the role of pyroptosis and chronic inflammasome activation; and the roles of lysosomal permeabilisation, necroptosis and ferroptosis. Finally, it is suggested that, in addition to targeting oxidative stress and inflammatory processes generally, neuropsychiatric disorders may respond to therapeutic targeting of TNF-α, PARP-1, the Nod-like receptor NLRP3 inflammasome and the necrosomal molecular switch receptor-interacting protein kinase-3, since their widespread activation can drive and/or exacerbate peripheral inflammation and neuroinflammation even in the absence of cell death. To this end, the use is proposed of a combination of the tetracycline derivative minocycline and N-acetylcysteine as adjunctive treatment for a range of neuropsychiatric disorders.

The Putative Role of Environmental Mercury in the Pathogenesis and Pathophysiology of Autism Spectrum Disorders and Subtypes.

Exposure to organic forms of mercury has the theoretical capacity to generate a range of immune abnormalities coupled with chronic nitro-oxidative stress seen in children with autism spectrum disorder (ASD). The paper discusses possible mechanisms explaining the neurotoxic effects of mercury and possible associations between mercury exposure and ASD subtypes. Environmental mercury is neurotoxic at doses well below the current reference levels considered to be safe, with evidence of neurotoxicity in children exposed to environmental sources including fish consumption and ethylmercury-containing vaccines. Possible neurotoxic mechanisms of mercury include direct effects on sulfhydryl groups, pericytes and cerebral endothelial cells, accumulation within astrocytes, microglial activation, induction of chronic oxidative stress, activation of immune-inflammatory pathways and impairment of mitochondrial functioning. (Epi-)genetic factors which may increase susceptibility to the toxic effects of mercury in ASD include the following: a greater propensity of males to the long-term neurotoxic effects of postnatal exposure and genetic polymorphisms in glutathione transferases and other glutathione-related genes and in selenoproteins. Furthermore, immune and inflammatory responses to immunisations with mercury-containing adjuvants are strongly influenced by polymorphisms in the human leukocyte antigen (HLA) region and by genes encoding effector proteins such as cytokines and pattern recognition receptors. Some epidemiological studies investigating a possible relationship between high environmental exposure to methylmercury and impaired neurodevelopment have reported a positive dose-dependent effect. Retrospective studies, on the other hand, reported no relationship between a range of ethylmercury-containing vaccines and chronic neuropathology or ASD. On the basis of these results, we would argue that more clinically relevant research is required to examine whether environmental mercury is associated with ASD or subtypes. Specific recommendations for future research are discussed.

Peripheral cytokine and chemokine alterations in depression: a meta-analysis of 82 studies.

OBJECTIVE: To conduct a systematic review and meta-analysis of studies that measured cytokine and chemokine levels in individuals with major depressive disorder (MDD) compared to healthy controls (HCs). METHOD: The PubMed/MEDLINE, EMBASE, and PsycINFO databases were searched up until May 30, 2016. Effect sizes were estimated with random-effects models. RESULT: Eighty-two studies comprising 3212 participants with MDD and 2798 HCs met inclusion criteria. Peripheral levels of interleukin-6 (IL-6), tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-alpha, IL-10, the soluble IL-2 receptor, C-C chemokine ligand 2, IL-13, IL-18, IL-12, the IL-1 receptor antagonist, and the soluble TNF receptor 2 were elevated in patients with MDD compared to HCs, whereas interferon-gamma levels were lower in MDD (Hedge's g = -0.477, P = 0.043). Levels of IL-1ß, IL-2, IL-4, IL-8, the soluble IL-6 receptor (sIL-6R), IL-5, CCL-3, IL-17, and transforming growth factor-beta 1 were not significantly altered in individuals with MDD compared to HCs. Heterogeneity was large (I2 : 51.6-97.7%), and sources of heterogeneity were explored (e.g., age, smoking status, and body mass index). CONCLUSION: Our results further characterize a cytokine/chemokine profile associated with MDD. Future studies are warranted to further elucidate sources of heterogeneity, as well as biosignature cytokines secreted by other immune cells.

A novel approach for BCR-ABL1 standardization to improve International Scale estimation.

INTRODUCTION: Standardization of BCR-ABL1 messenger RNA quantification by real-time PCR on the International Scale (IS) is critical for monitoring therapy response in chronic myelogenous leukaemia. Since 2006, BCR-ABL1 IS standardization is propagated along reference laboratories by calculating a laboratory-specific conversion factor (CF), co-ordinated in Europe through the European Treatment and Outcome Study project. Although this process has proven successful to some extent, it has not been achievable for all laboratories due to the complexity of the process and the stringent requirements in terms of numbers of samples to be exchanged. In addition, several BCR-ABL1 IS quantification methods and secondary reference materials became commercially available. However, it was observed that different IS methods generate consistently different results. METHODS: To overcome these difficulties, we have developed an alternative and simple approach of CF calculation, based on the retrospective analysis of existing external quality assessment (EQA) data. Our approach does not depend on the exchange of samples and is solely based on the mathematical CF calculation using EQA results. RESULTS AND CONCLUSION: We have demonstrated by thorough statistical validation that this approach performs well in converting BCR-ABL1 measurements to improve IS estimation. In expectation of a true golden standard method for BCR-ABL1 IS quantification, the proposed method is a valuable alternative.

Bias in emerging biomarkers for bipolar disorder.

BACKGROUND: To date no comprehensive evaluation has appraised the likelihood of bias or the strength of the evidence of peripheral biomarkers for bipolar disorder (BD). Here we performed an umbrella review of meta-analyses of peripheral non-genetic biomarkers for BD. METHOD: The Pubmed/Medline, EMBASE and PsycInfo electronic databases were searched up to May 2015. Two independent authors conducted searches, examined references for eligibility, and extracted data. Meta-analyses in any language examining peripheral non-genetic biomarkers in participants with BD (across different mood states) compared to unaffected controls were included. RESULTS: Six references, which examined 13 biomarkers across 20 meta-analyses (5474 BD cases and 4823 healthy controls) met inclusion criteria. Evidence for excess of significance bias (i.e. bias favoring publication of 'positive' nominally significant results) was observed in 11 meta-analyses. Heterogeneity was high for (I 2 ⩾ 50%) 16 meta-analyses. Only two biomarkers met criteria for suggestive evidence namely the soluble IL-2 receptor and morning cortisol. The median power of included studies, using the effect size of the largest dataset as the plausible true effect size of each meta-analysis, was 15.3%. CONCLUSIONS: Our findings suggest that there is an excess of statistically significant results in the literature of peripheral biomarkers for BD. Selective publication of 'positive' results and selective reporting of outcomes are possible mechanisms.

Fibromyalgia and Bipolar Disorder: Emerging Epidemiological Associations and Shared Pathophysiology.

Fibromyalgia (FM) is a prevalent disorder defined by the presence of chronic widespread pain in association with fatigue, sleep disturbances and cognitive dysfunction. Recent studies indicate that bipolar spectrum disorders frequently co-occur in individuals with FM. Furthermore, shared pathophysiological mechanisms anticipate remarkable phenomenological similarities between FM and BD. A comprehensive search of the English literature was carried out in the Pubmed/MEDLINE database through May 10th, 2015 to identify unique references pertaining to the epidemiology and shared pathophysiology between FM and bipolar disorder (BD). Overlapping neural circuits may underpin parallel clinical manifestations of both disorders. Fibromyalgia and BD are both characterized by functional abnormalities in the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis, higher levels of inflammatory mediators, oxidative and nitrosative stress as well as mitochondrial dysfunction. An over-activation of the kynurenine pathway in both illnesses drives tryptophan away from the production of serotonin and melatonin, leading to affective symptoms, circadian rhythm disturbances and abnormalities in pain processing. In addition, both disorders are associated with impaired neuroplasticity (e.g., altered brain-derived neurotrophic factor signaling). The recognition of the symptomatic and pathophysiological overlapping between FM and bipolar spectrum disorders has relevant etiological, clinical and therapeutic implications that deserve future research consideration.

Validation of the Sysmex CS5100 coagulation analyzer and comparison to the Stago STA-R analyzer for routine coagulation parameters.

INTRODUCTION: The CS5100 analyzer (Sysmex) was validated for the determination of routine coagulation parameters. This fully automated coagulation analyzer uses multiple wavelength technology to perform coagulation (e.g., activated partial thromboplastin time - APTT, prothrombin time - PT, fibrinogen - FBG), chromogenic (e.g., antithrombin - AT) and immunological (e.g., D-dimers - DDi) assays. METHODS: A comparison with the currently used STA-R Evolution (Stago) was performed. Validation and verification of reference values of the CS5100 was performed in accordance to CLSI guidelines (H57-A, H47-A2, and C28-A3). RESULTS: As a different detection system and reagents were used, significant differences were observed (e.g. APTT). The within-day and between-day imprecision, accuracy and total error were all acceptable. The reference values defined by the manufacturer could be used except for APTT. In our settings, the therapeutic anti-Xa range of 0.3-0.7 IU/mL corresponded to an APTT range of 60-100 s (Dade actin FS reagent). The APTT reagent showed factor sensitivities between 46 and 72% for FVIII, IX, XI and XII while the PT reagent showed sensitivities between 34 and 52% for FII, FV, FXII, and FX. CONCLUSION: In conclusion, the CS5100 instrument is suitable for the determination of the APTT, PT, FBG, DDi and AT in routine analysis.

Towards a classification of biomarkers of neuropsychiatric disease: from encompass to compass.

There is currently considerable imprecision in the nosology of biomarkers used in the study of neuropsychiatric disease. The neuropsychiatric field lags behind others such as oncology, wherein, rather than using 'biomarker' as a blanket term for a diverse range of clinical phenomena, biomarkers have been actively classified into separate categories, including prognostic and predictive tests. A similar taxonomy is proposed for neuropsychiatric diseases in which the core biology remains relatively unknown. This paper divides potential biomarkers into those of (1) risk, (2) diagnosis/trait, (3) state or acuity, (4) stage, (5) treatment response and (6) prognosis, and provides illustrative exemplars. Of course, biomarkers rely on available technology and, as we learn more about the neurobiological correlates of neuropsychiatric disorders, we will realize that the classification of biomarkers across these six categories can change, and some markers may fit into more than one category.

Quantitation and localization of pospiviroids in aphids.

In this paper, the potential role of aphids in viroid transmission was explored. Apterous aphids were fed on pospiviroid-infected plants and viroid targets in the aphids were consequently quantified through RT-qPCR and localized within the aphid body using fluorescence in situ hybridization (FISH). Based on the analytical sensitivity test, the limit of detection (LOD) was estimated at 1.69×10(6) viroid copies per individual aphid body. To localize the viroids in the aphids, a pospiviroid-generic Cy5-labelled probe was used and the fluorescent signal was determined by confocal microscopy. Viroids were clearly observed in the aphid's stylet and stomach, but not in the embryos. Viroids were detected in 29% of the aphids after a 24h feeding period, which suggests only a partial and low concentration viroid uptake by the aphid population including viroid concentrations under the LOD. However, these results show that viroids can be ingested by aphids while feeding on infected plants, thus potentially increasing the transmission risk. The combination of FISH and RT-qPCR provides reliable and fast localization and quantitation of viroid targets in individual aphids and thus constitutes a valuable tool in future epidemiological research.

Quality of life in bipolar and schizoaffective disorder--a naturalistic approach.

PURPOSE: The aim of this study was to evaluate the health-related quality of life (HRQoL) in bipolar type I (BD I) and schizoaffective (SQA) patients during a 2-year period in a naturalistic study. METHODS: This study was based on the data generated by the Bipolar Comprehensive Outcome Study, a prospective, non-interventional, observational study of participants with BD I and SQA disorder. Mixed-Model Repeated Measures Analysis was used to analyze changes in the SF-36 and EQ-5D. RESULTS: Participants exhibited low health status at baseline with SF-36 mean scores of 46.7±10.5 and 36.9±12.9 (best imaginable health=100, normal population≈50) for physical and mental components, respectively. No significant differences were found between the ratings of the BD I and SQA patients on HRQoL. The SF-36 SMC improved significantly over 24 months although SPC scores remained consistent across the study. On the whole, the lowest SMC score was observed among the depressed patients (38.20), followed by the patients with a mixed state (39.01) and the manic patients (39.83). LIMITATIONS: The observational design may have limited the causal relationships and the generalizability within the current findings. CONCLUSIONS: HRQoL was significantly impaired in all stages of BD and SQA when compared to the general population. The impairment of HRQoL was most pronounced in the depressed state, followed by the mixed state and then the manic state. The euthymic patients showed the least impairment. In addition, patients showed a global improvement in their mental health satisfaction over the 2 years follow up period.

Clinical predictors of 2-year outcome of resective epilepsy surgery in adults with refractory epilepsy: a cohort study.

OBJECTIVES: Resective epilepsy surgery is currently a standard treatment for intractable epilepsy. Seizure freedom and discontinuation of antiepileptic drugs are the ultimate goals of epilepsy treatment. This study was carried out to delineate (1) possible differences in the success rate of epilepsy surgery 6 and 24 months after surgery; and (2) the clinical predictors of a good response to surgery. SETTING: This is a cohort study performed at a tertiary care unit of a university hospital. PARTICIPANTS: In this cohort study, 189 adults with intractable epilepsy who underwent epilepsy surgery were included. We collected clinical data at three time points, that is, preoperative and 6 and 24 months after surgery. PRIMARY AND SECONDARY OUTCOME MEASURES: Engel class I-IV classification was the primary outcome measure of epilepsy surgery. The authors statistically adjusted Engel class I-IV classification for postoperative changes in antiepileptic drugs and used this new classification as a secondary outcome variable. RESULTS: The success rate was 78.8% 6 months after surgery and increased to 88.3% 24 months after surgery. This success rate was reflected not only by the reduced number of seizures postsurgery, but also by a reduced dosage and use of antiepileptic drugs. Logistic regression analysis showed that a successful outcome of surgery is predicted by having temporal rather than extratemporal lobe epilepsy and less than nine presurgery seizures per month, while a positive familial history of epilepsy, younger age and dysphoric symptoms, the first 3 months after surgery, significantly worsened the outcome of surgery. Duration of illness, age at onset, epilepsy location, type of lesions and the presence of psychosis were not significant in predicting treatment outcome. CONCLUSIONS: These findings have clinical relevance in that a better selection of patients based on the significant clinical predictors will increase the success rate of epilepsy surgery and treatment.