Comparing the genetic typing methods for effective surveillance and rabies control in Georgia.

A full nucleoprotein gene sequencing of 68 isolates collected from passive rabies surveillance system in Georgia between 2015 and 2016 identified two distinct dog rabies phylogroups, GEO_V1 and GEO_V2, which both belonged to the cosmopolitan dog clade. GEO_V1 was found throughout the country and was further divided into four sub-phylogroups that overlapped geographically; GEO_V2 was found in the southeast region and was closely related to dog rabies in Azerbaijan. A sequence analysis of the full N gene, partial nucleoprotein gene of N-terminal and C-terminal, and the amplicon sequences of pan-lyssavirus RT-qPCR LN34 showed that all four sequencing approaches provided clear genetic typing results of canine rabies and could further differentiate GEO_V1 and GEO_V2. The phylogenetic analysis results vary and were affected by the length of the sequences used. Amplicon sequencing of the LN34 assay positive samples provided a rapid and cost-effective method for rabies genetic typing, which is important for improving rabies surveillance and canine rabies eradication globally.

Laboratory Infection of Novel Akhmeta Virus in CAST/EiJ Mice.

Akhmeta virus is a zoonotic Orthopoxvirus first identified in 2013 in the country of Georgia. Subsequent ecological investigations in Georgia have found evidence that this virus is widespread in its geographic distribution within the country and in its host-range, with rodents likely involved in its circulation in the wild. Yet, little is known about the pathogenicity of this virus in rodents. We conducted the first laboratory infection of Akhmeta virus in CAST/EiJ Mus musculus to further characterize this novel virus. We found a dose-dependent effect on mortality and weight loss (p < 0.05). Anti-orthopoxvirus antibodies were detected in the second- and third-highest dose groups (5 × 104 pfu and 3 × 102 pfu) at euthanasia by day 10, and day 14 post-infection, respectively. Anti-orthopoxvirus antibodies were not detected in the highest dose group (3 × 106 pfu), which were euthanized at day 7 post-infection and had high viral load in tissues, suggesting they succumbed to disease prior to mounting an effective immune response. In order of highest burden, viable virus was detected in the nostril, lung, tail, liver and spleen. All individuals tested in the highest dose groups were DNAemic. Akhmeta virus was highly pathogenic in CAST/EiJ Mus musculus, causing 100% mortality when ≥3 × 102 pfu was administered.

Knowledge, attitudes, and practices related to anthrax and animal care: A case-control study in Georgia.

INTRODUCTION: Anthrax is endemic in Georgia and recent outbreaks prompted a livestock-handler case-control study with a component to evaluate anthrax knowledge, attitudes, and practices (KAP) among livestock handlers or owners. METHODS: Cases were handlers of livestock with confirmed animal anthrax from June 2013-May 2015. Handlers of four matched unaffected animals were selected as controls, two from the same village as the case animal ("village control") and two from 3-10 km away ("area control"). Descriptive statistics were reported and conditional logistic regression was performed to estimate the magnitude of the association of cases with specific study KAP factors. RESULTS: Cases were more likely male, had lower level college education, less animal care experience, and provided more animal care to their cattle. Cases had lower odds of burying a suddenly dead animal compared to all controls (Odds Ratio [OR]: 0.32, 95% Confidence interval [CI]:0.12, 0.88) and area controls (OR: 0.32, 95% CI: 0.11, 0.91). On an 8-point knowledge scale, cases having an animal with anthrax had a 1.31 times greater knowledge score compared to all controls (95% CI: 1.03, 1.67). Cases had higher odds of ever having human anthrax or knowing another person who had anthrax compared to all controls (OR: 4.56, 95% CI: 1.45, 14.30) and area controls (OR: 7.16, 95% CI: 1.52, 33.80). DISCUSSION: Cases were more knowledgeable of anthrax and had better anthrax prevention practices, but these are likely a result of the case investigation and ring vaccination following the death of their animal. CONCLUSIONS: The findings reveal a low level of knowledge and practices related to anthrax control and prevention, and will guide educational material development to fill these gaps.

Isolation and Characterization of Akhmeta Virus from Wild-Caught Rodents (Apodemus spp.) in Georgia.

In 2013, a novel orthopoxvirus was detected in skin lesions of two cattle herders from the Kakheti region of Georgia (country); this virus was named Akhmeta virus. Subsequent investigation of these cases revealed that small mammals in the area had serological evidence of orthopoxvirus infections, suggesting their involvement in the maintenance of these viruses in nature. In October 2015, we began a longitudinal study assessing the natural history of orthopoxviruses in Georgia. As part of this effort, we trapped small mammals near Akhmeta (n = 176) and Gudauri (n = 110). Here, we describe the isolation and molecular characterization of Akhmeta virus from lesion material and pooled heart and lung samples collected from five wood mice (Apodemus uralensis and Apodemus flavicollis) in these two locations. The genomes of Akhmeta virus obtained from rodents group into 2 clades: one clade represented by viruses isolated from A. uralensis samples, and one clade represented by viruses isolated from A. flavicollis samples. These genomes also display several presumptive recombination events for which gene truncation and identity have been examined.IMPORTANCE Akhmeta virus is a unique Orthopoxvirus that was described in 2013 from the country of Georgia. This paper presents the first isolation of this virus from small mammal (Rodentia; Apodemus spp.) samples and the molecular characterization of those isolates. The identification of the virus in small mammals is an essential component to understanding the natural history of this virus and its transmission to human populations and could guide public health interventions in Georgia. Akhmeta virus genomes harbor evidence suggestive of recombination with a variety of other orthopoxviruses; this has implications for the evolution of orthopoxviruses, their ability to infect mammalian hosts, and their ability to adapt to novel host species.

Risk factors associated with the occurrence of anthrax outbreaks in livestock in the country of Georgia: A case-control investigation 2013-2015.

INTRODUCTION: Anthrax is considered endemic in livestock in Georgia. In 2007, the annual vaccination became the responsibility of livestock owners, while contracting of private veterinarians was not officially required. Six years later, due to increase in human outbreaks associated with livestock handling, there is a need to find out the risk factors of livestock anthrax in Georgia. OBJECTIVE: To identify exposures and risk factors associated with livestock anthrax. METHODS: A matched case-control study design was used to recruit the owners of individual livestock anthrax cases that occurred between June 2013 and May 2015, and owners of unaffected livestock from within ("village control") and outside the village ("area control"). We collected data about the case and control livestock animals' exposure and risk factors within the one-month prior to the disease onset of the case livestock (or matched case for the controls). We used logistic regression analysis (univariate and multivariable) to calculate the odds ratios of exposures and risk factors. RESULTS: During the study period, 36 anthrax cases met the case definition and were enrolled in the study; 67 matched village control livestock and 71 matched area control livestock were also enrolled. The findings from multivariable logistic regression analysis demonstrate that vaccination within the last two years significantly reduced the odds of anthrax in cattle (OR = 0.014; 95% Confidence interval = <0.001, 0.99). The other factors that were significantly protective against anthrax were 'animals being in covered fence area/barn' (OR = 0.065; p-value = 0.036), and 'female animal being pregnant or milking compared to heifer' (OR = 0.006; p-value = 0.037). CONCLUSIONS: The information obtained from this study has involved and been presented to decision makers, used to build technical capacity of veterinary staff, and to foster a One Health approach to the control of zoonotic diseases which will optimize prevention and control strategies. Georgia has embedded the knowledge and specific evidence that vaccination is a highly protective measure to prevent anthrax deaths among livestock, to which primary emphasis of the anthrax control program will be given. Education of livestock keepers in Georgia is an overriding priority.

Genome Sequences of Akhmeta Virus, an Early Divergent Old World Orthopoxvirus.

Annotated whole genome sequences of three isolates of the Akhmeta virus (AKMV), a novel species of orthopoxvirus (OPXV), isolated from the Akhmeta and Vani regions of the country Georgia, are presented and discussed. The AKMV genome is similar in genomic content and structure to that of the cowpox virus (CPXV), but a lower sequence identity was found between AKMV and Old World OPXVs than between other known species of Old World OPXVs. Phylogenetic analysis showed that AKMV diverged prior to other Old World OPXV. AKMV isolates formed a monophyletic clade in the OPXV phylogeny, yet the sequence variability between AKMV isolates was higher than between the monkeypox virus strains in the Congo basin and West Africa. An AKMV isolate from Vani contained approximately six kb sequence in the left terminal region that shared a higher similarity with CPXV than with other AKMV isolates, whereas the rest of the genome was most similar to AKMV, suggesting recombination between AKMV and CPXV in a region containing several host range and virulence genes.

Frameworks for Preventing, Detecting, and Controlling Zoonotic Diseases.

Preventing zoonotic diseases requires coordinated actions by government authorities responsible for human and animal health. Constructing the frameworks needed to foster intersectoral collaboration can be approached in many ways. We highlight 3 examples of approaches to implement zoonotic disease prevention and control programs. The first, rabies control in Ethiopia, was implemented using an umbrella approach: a comprehensive program designed for accelerated impact. The second, a monkeypox program in Democratic Republic of the Congo, was implemented in a stepwise manner, whereby incremental improvements and activities were incorporated into the program. The third approach, a pathogen discovery program, applied in the country of Georgia, was designed to characterize and understand the ecology, epidemiology, and pathogenesis of a new zoonotic pathogen. No one approach is superior, but various factors should be taken into account during design, planning, and implementation.

Retrospective Proteomic Analysis of Serum After Akhmeta Virus Infection: New Suspect Case Identification and Insights Into Poxvirus Humoral Immunity.

Serologic cross-reactivity, a hallmark of orthopoxvirus (OPXV) infection, makes species-specific diagnosis of infection difficult. In this study, we used a variola virus proteome microarray to characterize and differentiate antibody responses to nonvaccinia OPXV infections from smallpox vaccination. The profile of 2 case patients infected with newly discovered OPXV, Akhmeta virus, exhibited antibody responses of greater intensity and broader recognition of viral proteins and includes the B21/22 family glycoproteins not encoded by vaccinia virus strains used as vaccines. An additional case of Akhmeta virus, or nonvaccinia OPXV infection, was identified through community surveillance of individuals with no or uncertain history of vaccination and no recent infection. The results demonstrate the utility of microarrays for high-resolution mapping of antibody response to determine the nature of OPXV exposure.

Human infection with a zoonotic orthopoxvirus in the country of Georgia.

During 2013, cutaneous lesions developed in two men in the country of Georgia after they were exposed to ill cows. The men had never received vaccination against smallpox. Tests of lesion material with the use of a quantitative real-time polymerase-chain-reaction assay for non-variola virus orthopoxviruses were positive, and DNA sequence analysis implicated a novel orthopoxvirus species. During the ensuing epidemiologic investigation, no additional human cases were identified. However, serologic evidence of exposure to an orthopoxvirus was detected in cows in the patients' herd and in captured rodents and shrews. A third case of human infection that occurred in 2010 was diagnosed retrospectively during testing of archived specimens that were originally submitted for tests to detect anthrax. Orthopoxvirus infection should be considered in persons in whom cutaneous lesions develop after contact with animals.