A cytoskeleton-membrane interaction conserved in fast-spiking neurons controls movement, emotion, and memory.

The pathogenesis of schizophrenia is believed to involve combined dysfunctions of many proteins including microtubule-associated protein 6 (MAP6) and Kv3.1 voltage-gated K+ (Kv) channel, but their relationship and functions in behavioral regulation are often not known. Here we report that MAP6 stabilizes Kv3.1 channels in parvalbumin-positive (PV+ ) fast-spiking GABAergic interneurons, regulating behavior. MAP6-/- and Kv3.1-/- mice display similar hyperactivity and avoidance reduction. Their proteins colocalize in PV+ interneurons and MAP6 deletion markedly reduces Kv3.1 protein level. We further show that two microtubule-binding modules of MAP6 bind the Kv3.1 tetramerization domain with high affinity, maintaining the channel level in both neuronal soma and axons. MAP6 knockdown by AAV-shRNA in the amygdala or the hippocampus reduces avoidance or causes hyperactivity and recognition memory deficit, respectively, through elevating projection neuron activity. Finally, knocking down Kv3.1 or disrupting the MAP6-Kv3.1 binding in these brain regions causes avoidance reduction and hyperactivity, consistent with the effects of MAP6 knockdown. Thus, disrupting this conserved cytoskeleton-membrane interaction in fast-spiking neurons causes different degrees of functional vulnerability in various neural circuits.

Phylogenetic spread of sequence data affects fitness of consensus enzymes: Insights from triosephosphate isomerase.

The concept of consensus in multiple sequence alignments (MSAs) has been used to design and engineer proteins previously with some success. However, consensus design implicitly assumes that all amino acid positions function independently, whereas in reality, the amino acids in a protein interact with each other and work cooperatively to produce the optimum structure required for its function. Correlation analysis is a tool that can capture the effect of such interactions. In a previously published study, we made consensus variants of the triosephosphate isomerase (TIM) protein using MSAs that included sequences form both prokaryotic and eukaryotic organisms. These variants were not completely native-like and were also surprisingly different from each other in terms of oligomeric state, structural dynamics, and activity. Extensive correlation analysis of the TIM database has revealed some clues about factors leading to the unusual behavior of the previously constructed consensus proteins. Among other things, we have found that the more ill-behaved consensus mutant had more broken correlations than the better-behaved consensus variant. Moreover, we report three correlation and phylogeny-based consensus variants of TIM. These variants were more native-like than the previous consensus mutants and considerably more stable than a wild-type TIM from a mesophilic organism. This study highlights the importance of choosing the appropriate diversity of MSA for consensus analysis and provides information that can be used to engineer stable enzymes.

Correction to: Determinant roles of dendritic cell-expressed Notch Delta-like and Jagged ligands on anti-tumor T-cell immunity.

Following publication of the original article [1], the author reported the wrong version of Figs. 5 and 7 have been published. The correct version of the figures can be found below.

Determinant roles of dendritic cell-expressed Notch Delta-like and Jagged ligands on anti-tumor T cell immunity.

BACKGROUND: Notch intercellular communication instructs tissue-specific T-cell development and function. In this study, we explored the roles of dendritic cell (DC)-expressed Notch ligands in the regulation of T-cell effector function. METHODS: We generated mice with CD11c lineage-specific deletion of Notch Delta-like ligand (Dll)1 and Jagged (Jag)2. Using these genetically-ablated mice and engineered pharmacological Notch ligand constructs, the roles of various Delta-like and Jagged ligands in the regulation of T-cell-mediated immunity were investigated. We assessed tumor growth, mouse survival, cytokine production, immunophenotyping of myeloid and lymphoid populations infiltrating the tumors, expression of checkpoint molecules and T-cell function in the experimental settings of murine lung and pancreatic tumors and cardiac allograft rejection. Correlative studies were also performed for the expression of NOTCH ligands, NOTCH receptors and PD-1 on various subsets of myeloid and lymphoid cells in tumor-infiltrating immune cells analyzed from primary human lung cancers. RESULTS: Mice with CD11c lineage-specific deletion of Notch ligand gene Dll1, but not Jag2, exhibited accelerated growth of lung and pancreatic tumors concomitant with decreased antigen-specific CD8+T-cell functions and effector-memory (Tem) differentiation. Increased IL-4 but decreased IFN-γ production and elevated populations of T-regulatory and myeloid-derived suppressor cells were observed in Dll1-ablated mice. Multivalent clustered DLL1-triggered Notch signaling overcame DC Dll1 deficiency and improved anti-tumor T-cell responses, whereas the pharmacological interference by monomeric soluble DLL1 construct suppressed the rejection of mouse tumors and cardiac allograft. Moreover, monomeric soluble JAG1 treatment reduced T-regulatory cells and improved anti-tumor immune responses by decreasing the expression of PD-1 on CD8+Tem cells. A significant correlation was observed between DC-expressed Jagged and Delta-like ligands with Tem-expressed PD-1 and Notch receptors, respectively, in human lung tumor-infiltrates. CONCLUSION: Our data show the importance of specific expression of Notch ligands on DCs in the regulation of T-cell effector function. Thus, strategies incorporating selectively engineered Notch ligands could provide a novel approach of therapeutics for modulating immunity in various immunosuppressive conditions including cancer.

An efficient and quantitative assay for epitope-tagged therapeutic protein development with a capillary western system.

Aim: To develop and validate a reliable, robust and efficient assay to detect and quantify biologic compounds in vitro and in vivo during early stage of a biotherapeutic agent discovery. Methodology & results: An enrichment-free immunoassay method was developed to quantify a polyhistidine N- and FLAG C-terminally-tagged recombinant protein of ∼55 kDa. The target proteins were purified by a nickel-based matrix via tag affinity, followed by probing with biotinylated antitag antibody and subsequently detected by streptavidin-horseradish peroxidase conjugate using an automated capillary-based western system. Conclusion: A simple, highly sensitive and efficient immunoassay protocol was established to assess the in vitro stability and pharmacokinetic properties of propitious recombinant proteins in vivo in mouse to support early stage development of a biotherapeutic lead.

Stoichiometry of triple-sieve tRNA editing complex ensures fidelity of aminoacyl-tRNA formation.

Aminoacyl-tRNA synthetases catalyze the attachment of cognate amino acids onto tRNAs. To avoid mistranslation, editing mechanisms evolved to maintain tRNA aminoacylation fidelity. For instance, while rejecting the majority of non-cognate amino acids via discrimination in the synthetic active site, prolyl-tRNA synthetase (ProRS) misactivates and mischarges Ala and Cys, which are similar in size to cognate Pro. Ala-tRNAPro is specifically hydrolyzed by the editing domain of ProRS in cis, while YbaK, a free-standing editing domain, clears Cys-tRNAPro in trans. ProXp-ala is another editing domain that clears Ala-tRNAPro in trans. YbaK does not appear to possess tRNA specificity, readily deacylating Cys-tRNACysin vitro. We hypothesize that YbaK binds to ProRS to gain specificity for Cys-tRNAPro and avoid deacylation of Cys-tRNACys in the cell. Here, in vivo evidence for ProRS-YbaK interaction was obtained using a split-green fluorescent protein assay. Analytical ultracentrifugation and native mass spectrometry were used to investigate binary and ternary complex formation between ProRS, YbaK, and tRNAPro. Our combined results support the hypothesis that the specificity of YbaK toward Cys-tRNAPro is determined by the formation of a three-component complex with ProRS and tRNAPro and establish the stoichiometry of a 'triple-sieve' editing complex for the first time.

Insights into the mechanism of paraoxonase-1: Comparing the reactivity of the six-bladed ß-propeller hydrolases.

The mammalian protein paraoxonase-1 (PON1) has been explored as a promising bioscavenger treatment for organophosphorus (OP) agent poisoning, but it is not active enough to protect against many agents. Engineering is limited because PON1's catalytic mechanism is poorly understood; moreover, its native activity and substrate are unknown. PON1 is a calcium-bound six-bladed ß-propeller hydrolase that shares high structural homology, a conserved metal-coordinating active site, and substrate specificity overlap with other members of a superfamily that includes squid diisopropylfluorophosphatase (DFPase), bacterial drug responsive protein 35 (Drp35), and mammalian senescence marker protein 30 (SMP30). We hypothesized that, by examining the reactivity of all four hydrolases using a common set of conservative mutations, we could gain further insight into the catalytic mechanism of PON1. We chose a set of mutations to examine conserved Asp and Glu residues in the hydrolase active sites, as well as the ligation sphere around the catalytic calcium and a His-His dyad seen in PON1. The wild-type (WT) and mutant hydrolases were assayed against a set of lactones, aryl esters, and OPs that PON1 is known to hydrolyze. Surprisingly, some mutations of Ca2+ coordinating residues, previously thought to be essential for turnover, resulted in significant activity toward all substrate classes examined. Additionally, merely maintaining WT-like charge in the active site of PON1 was insufficient for high activity. Finally, the H115-H134 dyad does not appear to be essential for catalysis against any substrate. Therefore, previously proposed mechanisms must be re-evaluated.

Resonance assignments of wild-type and two cysteine-free variants of the four-helix bundle protein, Rop.

Repressor of primer (Rop, or ROM, RNA I modulator) is a 63 amino acid four-helix bundle protein that exists in solution as an anti-parallel homodimer. This protein has been extensively studied, including by X-ray crystallography, NMR, rational design, and combinatorial mutagenesis. Previous NMR experiments with wild-type Rop were carried out at pH 2.3 and pH 6.3. In this paper, we report complete N-H backbone assignments for three variants of Rop under the same pH 6.3 conditions: wild-type Rop; a cysteine-free pseudo-wild type variant (C38A C52V); and a core-repacked variant of the Cys-free variant (T19V L41V C38A C52V). These assignments enable functional and dynamic studies of wild-type and Cys-free variants of Rop.

1H, 13C, 15N resonance assignment of recombinant Euplotes raikovi protein Er-23.

Er-23 is a small, 51 amino acid, disulfide-rich pheromone protein used for cell signaling by Euplotes raikovi. Ten of the 51 amino acids are cysteine, allowing up to five disulfide bonds. Previous NMR work with Er-23 utilized homologously expressed protein, prohibiting isotopic labeling, and consequently the chemical shift assignments were incomplete. We have expressed uniformly 15N and 13C-labeled Er-23 in an E. coli expression system. Here we report the full backbone and side chain resonance assignments for recombinant Er-23.

Linker engineering in anti-TAG-72 antibody fragments optimizes biophysical properties, serum half-life, and high-specificity tumor imaging.

Antibody (Ab) fragments have great clinical potential as cancer therapeutics and diagnostics. Their small size allows for fast clearance from blood, low immunoreactivity, better tumor penetration, and simpler engineering and production. The smallest fragment derived from a full-length IgG that retains binding to its antigen, the single-chain variable fragment (scFV), is engineered by fusing the variable light and variable heavy domains with a peptide linker. Along with switching the domain orientation, altering the length and amino acid sequence of the linker can significantly affect scFV binding, stability, quaternary structure, and other biophysical properties. Comprehensive studies of these attributes in a single scaffold have not been reported, making design and optimization of Ab fragments challenging. Here, we constructed libraries of 3E8, an Ab specific to tumor-associated glycoprotein 72 (TAG-72), a mucinous glycoprotein overexpressed in 80% of adenocarcinomas. We cloned, expressed, and characterized scFVs, diabodies, and higher-order multimer constructs with varying linker compositions, linker lengths, and domain orientations. These constructs dramatically differed in their oligomeric states and stabilities, not only because of linker and orientation but also related to the purification method. For example, protein L-purified constructs tended to have broader distributions and higher oligomeric states than has been reported previously. From this library, we selected an optimal construct, 3E8.G4S, for biodistribution and pharmacokinetic studies and in vivo xenograft mouse PET imaging. These studies revealed significant tumor targeting of 3E8.G4S with a tumor-to-background ratio of 29:1. These analyses validated 3E8.G4S as a fast, accurate, and specific tumor-imaging agent.

Phylogenetic spread of sequence data affects fitness of SOD1 consensus enzymes: Insights from sequence statistics and structural analyses.

Non-natural protein sequences with native-like structures and functions can be constructed successfully using consensus design. This design strategy is relatively well understood in repeat proteins with simple binding function, however detailed studies are lacking in globular enzymes. The SOD1 family is a good model for such studies due to the availability of large amount of sequence and structure data motivated by involvement of human SOD1 in the fatal motor neuron disease amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS). We constructed two consensus SOD1 enzymes from multiple sequence alignments from all organisms and eukaryotic organisms. A significant difference in their catalytic activities shows that the phylogenetic spread of the sequences used affects the fitness of the construct obtained. A mutation in an electrostatic loop and overall design incompatibilities between bacterial and eukaryotic sequences were implicated in this disparity. Based on this analysis, a bioinformatics approach was used to classify mutations thought to cause familial ALS providing a unique high level view of the physical basis of disease-causing aggregation of human SOD1.

A 3E8.scFv.Cys-IR800 Conjugate Targeting TAG-72 in an Orthotopic Colorectal Cancer Model.

PURPOSE: Optical surgical navigation (OSN) will be a potent tool to help surgeons more accurately and efficiently remove tumors. The purpose of this study was to evaluate a novel humanized 3E8 antibody (3E8 MAb) fragment site-specifically conjugated with IR800, 3E8.scFv.Cys-IR800, as a potential OSN agent to target colorectal adenocarcinoma. PROCEDURES: An engineered single-chain variable fragment of 3E8 MAb (targeted to TAG-72), appending a C-terminal cysteine residue (3E8.scFv.Cys), was created and reacted with IRDye800-maleimide. 3E8.scFv.Cys-IR800 identity and purity were verified by MALDI-TOF mass spectra and 800 nm detected size exclusion column HPLC. In vitro human colon adenocarcinoma LS-174 T cells binding and competition assay validated biological functionality. We further evaluated the imaging ability and receptor-specific binding of 3E8.scFv.Cys-IR800 in an orthotopic LS-174 T mouse model. RESULTS: A 1:1 dye to protein conjugate was achieved at greater than 90 % HPLC purity. A 1 nmol dose of 3E8.scFv.Cys-IR800 via intraperitoneal injection administration was sufficient to produce high tumor to background fluorescence contrast. Blocking competition studies both in vitro and in vivo using a different blocking protein, 3E8ΔCH2, demonstrated 3E8.scFv.Cys-IR800 binding specificity for TAG-72 antigen. CONCLUSIONS: 3E8.scFv.Cys-IR800 shows properties useful in a clinically viable OSN agent for colorectal cancer.

Using thermal scanning assays to test protein-protein interactions of inner-ear cadherins.

Protein-protein interactions play a crucial role in biological processes such as cell-cell adhesion, immune system-pathogen interactions, and sensory perception. Understanding the structural determinants of protein-protein complex formation and obtaining quantitative estimates of their dissociation constant (KD) are essential for the study of these interactions and for the discovery of new therapeutics. At the same time, it is equally important to characterize protein-protein interactions in a high-throughput fashion. Here, we use a modified thermal scanning assay to test interactions of wild type (WT) and mutant variants of N-terminal fragments (EC1+2) of cadherin-23 and protocadherin-15, two proteins essential for inner-ear mechanotransduction. An environmentally sensitive fluorescent dye (SYPRO orange) is used to monitor melting temperature (Tm) shifts of protocadherin-15 EC1+2 (pcdh15) in the presence of increasing concentrations of cadherin-23 EC1+2 (cdh23). These Tm shifts are absent when we use proteins containing deafness-related missense mutations known to disrupt cdh23 binding to pcdh15, and are increased for some rationally designed mutants expected to enhance binding. In addition, surface plasmon resonance binding experiments were used to test if the Tm shifts correlated with changes in binding affinity. We used this approach to find a double mutation (cdh23(T15E)- pcdh15(G16D)) that enhances binding affinity of the cadherin complex by 1.98 kJ/mol, roughly two-fold that of the WT complex. We suggest that the thermal scanning methodology can be used in high-throughput format to quickly compare binding affinities (KD from nM up to 100 µM) for some heterodimeric protein complexes and to screen small molecule libraries to find protein-protein interaction inhibitors and enhancers.

Protein stability: computation, sequence statistics, and new experimental methods.

Calculating protein stability and predicting stabilizing mutations remain exceedingly difficult tasks, largely due to the inadequacy of potential functions, the difficulty of modeling entropy and the unfolded state, and challenges of sampling, particularly of backbone conformations. Yet, computational design has produced some remarkably stable proteins in recent years, apparently owing to near ideality in structure and sequence features. With caveats, computational prediction of stability can be used to guide mutation, and mutations derived from consensus sequence analysis, especially improved by recent co-variation filters, are very likely to stabilize without sacrificing function. The combination of computational and statistical approaches with library approaches, including new technologies such as deep sequencing and high throughput stability measurements, point to a very exciting near term future for stability engineering, even with difficult computational issues remaining.

Understanding the sequence requirements of protein families: insights from the BioVis 2013 contests.

INTRODUCTION: In 2011, the BioVis symposium of the IEEE VisWeek conferences inaugurated a new variety of data analysis contest. Aimed at fostering collaborations between computational scientists and biologists, the BioVis contest provided real data from biological domains with emerging visualization needs, in the hope that novel approaches would result in powerful new tools for the community. In 2011 and 2012 the theme of these contests was expression Quantitative Trait Locus analysis, within and across tissues respectively. In 2013 the topic was updated to protein sequence and mutation visualization. METHODS: The contest was framed in the context of a real protein with numerous mutations that had lost function, and the question posed "what minimal set of changes would you propose to rescue function, or how could you support a biologist attempting to answer that question?". The data was grounded in actual experimental results in triosephosphate isomerase(TIM) enzymes. Seven teams composed of 36 individuals submitted entries with proposed solutions and approaches to the challenge. Their contributions ranged from careful analysis of the visualization and analytical requirements for the problem through integration of existing tools for analyzing the context and consequences of protein mutations, to completely new tools addressing the problem. RESULTS: Judges found valuable and novel contributions in each of the entries, including interesting ways to hierarchicalize the protein into domains of informational interaction, tools for simultaneously understanding both sequential and spatial order, and approaches for conveying some types of inter-residue dependencies. In this manuscript we document the problem presented to the contestants, summarize the biological contributions of their entries, and suggest opportunities that this work has highlighted for even more improved tools in the future.

Addressing the unmet need for visualizing conditional random fields in biological data.

BACKGROUND: The biological world is replete with phenomena that appear to be ideally modeled and analyzed by one archetypal statistical framework - the Graphical Probabilistic Model (GPM). The structure of GPMs is a uniquely good match for biological problems that range from aligning sequences to modeling the genome-to-phenome relationship. The fundamental questions that GPMs address involve making decisions based on a complex web of interacting factors. Unfortunately, while GPMs ideally fit many questions in biology, they are not an easy solution to apply. Building a GPM is not a simple task for an end user. Moreover, applying GPMs is also impeded by the insidious fact that the "complex web of interacting factors" inherent to a problem might be easy to define and also intractable to compute upon. DISCUSSION: We propose that the visualization sciences can contribute to many domains of the bio-sciences, by developing tools to address archetypal representation and user interaction issues in GPMs, and in particular a variety of GPM called a Conditional Random Field(CRF). CRFs bring additional power, and additional complexity, because the CRF dependency network can be conditioned on the query data. CONCLUSIONS: In this manuscript we examine the shared features of several biological problems that are amenable to modeling with CRFs, highlight the challenges that existing visualization and visual analytics paradigms induce for these data, and document an experimental solution called StickWRLD which, while leaving room for improvement, has been successfully applied in several biological research projects. Software and tutorials are available at http://www.stickwrld.org/.

Characterization of an Italian founder mutation in the RING-finger domain of BRCA1.

The identification of founder mutations in cancer predisposing genes is important to improve risk assessment in geographically defined populations, since it may provide specific targets resulting in cost-effective genetic testing. Here, we report the characterization of the BRCA1 c.190T>C (p.Cys64Arg) mutation, mapped to the RING-finger domain coding region, that we detected in 43 hereditary breast/ovarian cancer (HBOC) families, for the large part originating from the province of Bergamo (Northern Italy). Haplotype analysis was performed in 21 families, and led to the identification of a shared haplotype extending over three BRCA1-associated marker loci (0.4 cM). Using the DMLE+2.2 software program and regional population demographic data, we were able to estimate the age of the mutation to vary between 3,100 and 3,350 years old. Functional characterization of the mutation was carried out at both transcript and protein level. Reverse transcriptase-PCR analysis on lymphoblastoid cells revealed expression of full length mRNA from the mutant allele. A green fluorescent protein (GFP)-fragment reassembly assay showed that the p.Cys64Arg substitution prevents the binding of the BRCA1 protein to the interacting protein BARD1, in a similar way as proven deleterious mutations in the RING-domain. Overall, 55 of 83 (66%) female mutation carriers had a diagnosis of breast and/or ovarian cancer. Our observations indicate that the BRCA1 c.190T>C is a pathogenic founder mutation present in the Italian population. Further analyses will evaluate whether screening for this mutation can be suggested as an effective strategy for the rapid identification of at-risk individuals in the Bergamo area.

An antibody with a variable-region coiled-coil "knob" domain.

The X-ray crystal structure of a bovine antibody (BLV1H12) revealed a unique structure in its ultralong heavy chain complementarity determining region 3 (CDR3H) that folds into a solvent-exposed ß-strand "stalk" fused to a disulfide crosslinked "knob" domain. We have substituted an antiparallel heterodimeric coiled-coil motif for the ß-strand stalk in this antibody. The resulting antibody (Ab-coil) expresses in mammalian cells and has a stability similar to that of the parent bovine antibody. MS analysis of H-D exchange supports the coiled-coil structure of the substituted peptides. Substitution of the knob-domain of Ab-coil with bovine granulocyte colony-stimulating factor (bGCSF) results in a stably expressed chimeric antibody, which proliferates mouse NFS-60 cells with a potency comparable to that of bGCSF. This work demonstrates the utility of this novel coiled-coil CDR3 motif as a means for generating stable, potent antibody fusion proteins with useful pharmacological properties.