Occurrence, Prevalence, and Distribution of Haemoparasites of Poultry in Sub-Saharan Africa: A Scoping Review.

This review collated existing data on the occurrence, distribution, and prevalence of haemoparasites of poultry in sub-Saharan Africa. A literature search was conducted on three electronic search databases using search terms and Boolean operators (AND, OR). The results recorded 16 haemoparasites, viz., Leucocytozoon spp., L. marchouxi, L. neavei, L. sabrazesi, L. schoutedeni, Haemoproteus columbae, H. pratasi, Haemoproteus spp., Plasmodium spp., P. gallinaceum, P. circumflexum, P. juxtanucleare, Trypanosoma avium, T. gallinarum, T. numidae, and Hepatozoon spp. from a wide range of poultry species distributed across Nigeria, Kenya, South Africa, Tanzania, Uganda, Botswana, Zimbabwe, Ghana, Cameroon, and Zambia. Infections due to Haemoproteus and Leucocytozoon species were the most common and documented in eight of the ten reviewed countries. The presence of mixed infections was observed in quails, pigeons, chickens, ducks, turkeys, and guineafowls, but predominantly in chickens. Co-infections by Plasmodium spp. and Haemoproteus spp. were the most common, which may be attributed to the distribution of these species, coupled with the availability of vectors they are associated with in areas from which they were documented. The information generated in this review is essential for improving existing preventive and control measures of these parasites in sub-Saharan Africa.

Epidemiology, prevention and control of gastrointestinal helminths of small ruminants in the Caribbean region-a scoping review.

This review gathered information from peer-reviewed publications on the epidemiology, prevention and control of gastrointestinal helminths (GIHs) parasites of small ruminants in the Caribbean region from 1990 to 2021. Literature search was performed on four electronic databases using a combination of search terms and Boolean operators. Results showed that gastrointestinal nematodes (GINs) were the most common parasites, with seven genera documented across six reviewed countries. Haemonchus contortus was the most common species occurring in all six countries, and predominant in occasions where mixed infections were observed. Moniezia species were the only Platyhelminth species documented in Trinidad and Grenada. The overall prevalence of GIH infections was observed to be high in goats than in sheep. A high level of anthelminthic resistance (AR) with H. contortus was reported, whilst other nematodes showed to be effectively controlled by one or more anthelmintic drugs. FAMACHA© method was applied in the identification of anaemic animals for selective treatment, hence contributing to the decreased use of anthelmintic drugs. There is a need for national surveys of GIHs and AR in small ruminants in the Caribbean countries. Surveys, coupled with the use of molecular techniques to detect and identify species of GIHs present in the Caribbean region, as well as their epidemiology which will inform development of integrated control strategies is recommended. There is also a need to create awareness to small ruminant farmers in the region on the prevailing challenge of AR and limit wanton use of anthelminthics to reduce or prevent AR in small ruminants.

Molecular identification of helminth parasites of the Heterakidae and Ascarididae families of free-ranging chickens from selected rural communities of KwaZulu-Natal province of South Africa.

Free-range chickens are predisposed to diverse parasitic infections during scavenging. Accurate identification of these parasites using morphological characters has been a challenge. Therefore, this study aimed to identify nematodes from the Heterakidae and Ascarididae family infecting free-ranging chickens from KwaZulu-Natal province of South Africa using a combination of morphological and molecular techniques. Forty-two free-ranging adult indigenous chickens were purchased from randomly selected households in Shongweni (n=12), Umzinto (n=10), Gingindlovu (n=10) and Ozwathini (n=10) rural villages and examined for nematodes of the Heterakidae and Ascarididae family. Collected specimen were identified morphologically and confirmed using mitochondrial and nuclear ribosomal markers. Results showed that Ascaridia galli was common, occurring at all sampling locations with an overall prevalence of 58.3%, while Heterakis gallinarum and H. beramporia occurred in three locations. Ascaridia galli had high prevalence in Shongweni (58.3%), followed by Gingindlovu (40%), Ozwathini (20%) and Umzinto (10%). Heterakis gallinarum infection was prevalent in three locations, with an overall prevalence of 90% in Gingindlovu, 80% in Ozwathini and 58.3 % in Shongweni. Heterakis gallinarum and H. beramporia were not recorded in Umzinto. Heterakis beramporia was recorded in low prevalence in Gingindlovu (20%), Ozwathini (10%) and Shongweni (8.3%) villages. Mixed infections of A. galli and H. gallinarum were recorded in Gingindlovu, Ozwathini and Shongweni, and H. gallinarum and H. beramporia in Gingindlovu. Molecular analysis confirmed identification of A. galli, and further showed close relationship with the GenBank-derived South African isolates. Haplotype network further confirmed their ancestral history, where all South African A. galli isolates formed five novel haplotypes corresponding with the structure of the phylogenetic tree. Similar structure was observed with Heterakis isolates, where analysis of the cox1 gene showed that H. gallinarum formed a well-supported monophyletic clade with other Heterakis species. The ITS marker identified three specimens from Gingindlovu, Ozwathini and Shongweni as H. beramporia, which formed strongly supported sister clade to H. indica and this is the first report confirming the occurrence of H. beramporia in South Africa.

Are Freshwater Snails, Melanoides sp. and Invasive Tarebia granifera (Gastropoda: Thiaridae) Suitable Intermediate Hosts for Calicophoron microbothrium (Trematoda: Paramphistomoidea)? An Experimental Study.

Prosobranch snails and adult Paramphistomoidea flukes were collected from water bodies and cattle abattoir located in Mpumalanga province of South Africa, respectively. The snails were identified based on morphological characters as well as the ITS-2 and 16S markers as Melanoides sp. and Tarebia granifera, respectively, and the Paramphistomoidea flukes were identified as Calicophoron microbothrium using the ITS-1/5.8S/ITS-2 marker. After confirming identification, the snails were bred to first filial generation (F1) under laboratory conditions. Ninety snails were randomly selected from the laboratory-bred F1 snails and 25 Melanoides sp. and 20 T. granifera were exposed to C. microbothrium miracidia, and the same numbers were maintained as non-exposed controls. Results showed that C. microbothrium successfully established in Melanoides sp. and produced cercariae, and the prepatent period recorded was 21 days. Three snails shed cercariae at day 21 postexposure (PE), and rediae and free cercariae were detected in the soft tissues of one snail on dissection at day 44 PE. The same fluke did not establish in T. granifera. Melanoides sp. started producing offspring at day 7 PE, and T. granifera at day 14 PE. In conclusion, our results showed that Melanoides sp. used in this study is a suitable intermediate host for C. microbothrium under experimental conditions, and given the wide distribution of this snail species, it is important to determine its role in the natural transmission of other Calicophoron species that have been reported in South Africa.

Morphological and molecular characterization of Fasciola hepatica and Fasciola gigantica phenotypes from co-endemic localities in Mpumalanga and KwaZulu-Natal provinces of South Africa.

Fasciolosis is a food- and water-borne disease caused by digenean trematode species, Fasciola hepatica and F. gigantica. They are widely distributed and infect a wide range of definitive hosts, causing enormous economic loss due to reduced productivity in domestic ruminants. The two species have been previously reported to be co-endemic in KwaZulu-Natal and Mpumalanga provinces of South Africa. Hybridization between the two species has been reported elsewhere. Despite the overlap of the two species in two provinces, there has been no attempt to determine the presence of the intermediate forms or hybrids. Therefore, this study aimed at morphological and molecular characterization of Fasciola spp. collected from cattle slaughtered at abattoirs located in the two provinces of South Africa, where two species are endemic. A total of 71 fluke specimens were collected cattle from abattoirs in Enhlazeni and Nelspruit in Mpumalanga province and Pietermaritzburg in KwaZulu-Natal province of South Africa, and Zimbabwe (Bulawayo abattoir). Fasciola gigantica specimen collected from Zimbabwe where it has been confirmed as the only species occurring and this was used as control in the morphological and molecular assessment of the collected specimens. Of the 71 specimens collected, 37 were classified as F. hepatica, 12 as F. gigantica and 22 as Fasciola spp using morphological characters. Of these species, 11 of 37 F. hepatica and 6 of 22 Fasciola sp were found to be aspermic or having very scanty sperm. Fifteen flukes which were spermatic were all identified morphologically as F. gigantica whilst 5 flukes which were aspermic were identified morphologically as F. hepatica. Molecular analysis of the same 15 spermatic specimens confirmed the presence of F. hepatica (n = 9) and F. gigantica (n = 6) using the CO1 marker and as F. hepatica (n = 4), F. gigantica (n = 7) and Fasciola sp. (n = 1) for the same specimens using the ITS-1/5.8S/ITS-2 marker. The remaining 4 aspermic flukes (one did not resolve) were all identified morphologically as F. hepatica and molecular analysis confirmed them as F. hepatica (n = 4) by both CO1 and ITS-1/5.8S/ITS-2. Phylogenetic analysis based on both CO1 and ITS-1/5.8S/ITS-2 showed that F. hepatica species formed a moderately supported monophyletic clade with F. gigantica. Their ancestral history was further confirmed by haplotype network, which formed novel haplotypes that corresponded with the structure of the phylogenetic tree. Results from this study showed that morphological characters alone have limitations in identifying F. hepatica and F. gigantica in areas where the two species occur, although both methods confirmed the presence of F. gigantica occurring in Zimbabwe, F. hepatica in KwaZulu-Natal, and both species occurring in Mpumalanga province. Therefore, the use of morphological techniques, complemented by molecular techniques are recommended, especially in endemic areas where the two species are co-endemic.

Prevalence of Giardia and Cryptosporidium in young livestock and dogs in Magude District of Maputo Province, Mozambique.

BACKGROUND: Giardia and Cryptosporidium species are significant zoonotic parasites of humans and domesticated animals. OBJECTIVES: The study aimed to determine the prevalence of Giardia and Cryptosporidium in livestock and dogs of the Magude District. METHOD: The flotation technique (Willis), modified Ziehl-Neelsen (mZN) and direct and indirect immunofluorescence (DIF and IIF) techniques were applied to determine the prevalence of Giardia and Cryptosporidium species in faecal samples of dog pups (156), goat kids (60) and calves (480) from the Magude District of Mozambique from February to September 2015. RESULTS: Using Willis, IIF and DIF, the prevalence of Giardia in calves was 0%, 8.1%, and 6.0%; in dogs 0.6%, 8.3% and 5.7% and for goats 0% and 13.3% (IIF was not performed), respectively. The prevalence of Cryptosporidium in calves using Willis, mZN, IIF and DIF was 0%, 3.8%, 4.7% and 0.4% and in dogs 0%, 0.6%, 6.4% and 0.6%, respectively. The parasite was not detected in goats. CONCLUSION: Results from the present study showed that IIF performed better diagnosis of Giardia and Cryptosporidium, and that the mZN can be used as an alternative for Cryptosporidium because of the high cost of IIF. There is a need for identification of genotypes or subtypes of these parasites through application of molecular techniques in order to determine their zoonotic potential, and we advocate a 'one health' approach in the control and prevention of these parasites.

Molecular characterization of liver fluke intermediate host lymnaeids (Gastropoda: Pulmonata) snails from selected regions of Okavango Delta of Botswana, KwaZulu-Natal and Mpumalanga provinces of South Africa.

Lymnaeidae snail species are known to be intermediate hosts of human and livestock helminths parasites, especially Fasciola species. Identification of these species and their geographical distribution is important to better understand the epidemiology of the disease. Significant diversity has been observed in the shell morphology of snails from the Lymnaeidae family and the systematics within this family is still unclear, especially when the anatomical traits among various species have been found to be homogeneous. Although there are records of lymnaeid species of southern Africa based on shell morphology and controversial anatomical traits, there is paucity of information on the molecular identification and phylogenetic relationships of the different taxa. Therefore, this study aimed at identifying populations of Lymnaeidae snails from selected sites of the Okavango Delta (OKD) in Botswana, and sites located in the KwaZulu-Natal (KZN) and Mpumalanga (MP) provinces of South Africa using molecular techniques. Lymnaeidae snails were collected from 8 locations from the Okavango delta in Botswana, 9 from KZN and one from MP provinces and were identified based on phylogenetic analysis of the internal transcribed spacer (ITS-2). Analyses based on the ITS-2 marker identified the presence of a well-supported Radix clade containing Radix auricularia, R. natalensis and R. rubiginosa, which were not well resolved. Experimental samples from the OKD and KZN present in this clade were referable to these species. An unidentified experimental taxon from the OKD formed a well-supported sister clade to the Radix clade, although it was not possible to identify it. Galba truncatula was well supported in a sister relationship to a well-supported Pseudosuccinea columella clade which included samples from MP and KZN provinces of South Africa. We observed that P. columella shared the same habitats with R. natalensis and R. auricularia in KZN. Our study contributes new knowledge on the Lymnaeidae species present in Southern Africa and their phylogenetic relationships. The study further identifies the species which are likely to co-exist in the same environment and this information will be of use to those designing control programs for fasciolosis. This is the first study reporting the presence of R. auricularia in the OKD of Botswana and KZN province of South Africa.