Dilemmas in the diagnosis and management of antiphospholipid syndrome.

Antiphospholipid syndrome (APS) is characterized by thrombosis (which may be venous, arterial, or microvascular) and/or pregnancy morbidity in association with persistently positive antiphospholipid antibodies. Although thrombosis and pregnancy morbidity are the main clinical criteria for a diagnosis of APS in the revised Sapporo (Sydney) criteria, recently published American College of Rheumatology/European Alliance of Associations for Rheumatology classification criteria for APS have significantly refined the diagnostic algorithm to include a scoring system clustered into 6 clinical domains (macrovascular venous thromboembolism, macrovascular arterial thrombosis, microvascular thrombosis, obstetric, cardiac valve, and hematologic). Diagnosis of APS is complicated by the fact that significant heterogeneity exists in patients' clinical presentation, underlying vascular risk factors, and methods of detecting antiphospholipid antibodies. Despite the autoimmune nature of APS, anticoagulation remains the main strategy for secondary prevention of thrombosis. Furthermore, optimal antithrombotic treatment in APS patients with arterial thrombosis remains controversial due to a paucity of data from randomized controlled studies. In this paper, we present 2 cases and highlight the diagnostic and therapeutic challenges they pose and how we approach them in the light of current evidence.

Prehospital Resuscitation: What Should It Be?

Prehospital resuscitation is a dynamic field now being energized by new technologies and a shift in thinking regarding intravascular resuscitation. Growing evidence discourages use of intravenous (IV) crystalloid and colloid solutions in trauma, whereas blood products, particularly whole blood, are becoming preferred. Although randomized clinical trials validating definitive resuscitative protocols are still lacking, most preclinical and clinical indicators support this approach. In addition, emerging technologies such as external and endovascular hemorrhage control devices and extracorporeal perfusion are now being used routinely, even in the prehospital setting in many countries, generating new lines of emerging investigations for trauma specialists.

Pregnancy outcomes in women receiving eculizumab for the management of paroxysmal nocturnal haemoglobinuria.

Aims: To report pregnancy outcomes and complications in women receiving eculizumab for the management of paroxysmal nocturnal haemoglobinuria. Methods: A service evaluation of routinely collected medical records across 49 pregnancies in 21 women. Results: Eculizumab was used in 37 pregnancies, 31 of which (83.8%) ended in live birth. Eight infants (25.8%) were born prematurely. Over half (54%) of women required increases in their dose of eculizumab to control their haemolysis. There were no reported cases of maternal thrombosis. Major ante/postpartum bleeding necessitating urgent intervention was reported in 10.8% of pregnancies. There were two cases of intrauterine death and three miscarriages. There were no maternal or neonatal deaths. Three newborns required prolonged hospital stays. Conclusions: Eculizumab appears to benefit pregnant women with paroxysmal nocturnal haemoglobinuria and pregnancy outcomes following its use are largely good.

Femoral vascular access for endovascular resuscitation.

ABSTRACT: Endovascular resuscitation is an emerging area in the resuscitation of both severe traumatic hemorrhage and nontraumatic cardiac arrest. Vascular access is the critical first procedural step that must be accomplished to initiate endovascular resuscitation. The endovascular interventions presently available and emerging are routinely or potentially performed via the femoral vessels. This may require either femoral arterial access alone or access to both the femoral artery and vein. The time-critical nature of resuscitation necessitates that medical specialists performing endovascular resuscitation be well-trained in vascular access techniques. Keen knowledge of femoral vascular anatomy and skill with vascular access techniques are required to meet the needs of critically ill patients for whom endovascular resuscitation can prove lifesaving. This review article addresses the critical importance of femoral vascular access in endovascular resuscitation, focusing on the pertinent femoral vascular anatomy and technical aspects of ultrasound-guided percutaneous vascular access and femoral vessel cutdown that may prove helpful for successful endovascular resuscitation.

The use of resuscitative endovascular balloon occlusion of the aorta (REBOA) for non-traumatic cardiac arrest: A review.

Resuscitative endovascular balloon occlusion of the aorta (REBOA) has been proposed as a novel approach to managing non-traumatic cardiac arrest (NTCA). During cardiac arrest, cardiac output ceases and perfusion of vital organs is compromised. Traditional advanced cardiac life support (ACLS) measures and cardiopulmonary resuscitation are often unable to achieve return of spontaneous circulation (ROSC). During insertion of REBOA a balloon-tipped catheter is placed into the femoral artery and advanced in a retrograde manner into the aorta while the patient is undergoing cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR). The balloon is then inflated to fully occlude the aorta. The literature surrounding the use of aortic occlusion in non-traumatic cardiac arrest is limited to animal studies, case reports and one recent non-controlled feasibility trial. In both human and animal studies, preliminary data show that REBOA may improve coronary and cerebral perfusion pressures and key physiologic parameters during cardiac arrest resuscitation, and animal data have demonstrated improved rates of ROSC. Multiple questions remain before REBOA can be considered as an adjunct to ACLS. If demonstrated to be effective clinically, REBOA represents a potentially cost-effective and generalizable intervention that may improve quality of life for patients with non-traumatic cardiac arrest.

Rationale and Strategies for Development of an Optimal Bundle of Management for Cardiac Arrest.

OBJECTIVES: To construct a highly detailed yet practical, attainable roadmap for enhancing the likelihood of neurologically intact survival following sudden cardiac arrest. DESIGN SETTING AND PATIENTS: Population-based outcomes following out-of-hospital cardiac arrest were collated for 10 U.S. counties in Alaska, California, Florida, Ohio, Minnesota, Utah, and Washington. The 10 identified emergency medical services systems were those that had recently reported significant improvements in neurologically intact survival after introducing a more comprehensive approach involving citizens, hospitals, and evolving strategies for incorporating technology-based, highly choreographed care and training. Detailed inventories of in-common elements were collated from the ten 9-1-1 agencies and assimilated. For reference, combined averaged outcomes for out-of-hospital cardiac arrest occurring January 1, 2017, to February 28, 2018, were compared with concurrent U.S. outcomes reported by the well-established Cardiac Arrest Registry to Enhance Survival. INTERVENTIONS: Most commonly, interventions and components from the ten 9-1-1 systems consistently included extensive public cardiopulmonary resuscitation training, 9-1-1 system-connected smart phone applications, expedited dispatcher procedures, cardiopulmonary resuscitation quality monitoring, mechanical cardiopulmonary resuscitation, devices for enhancing negative intrathoracic pressure regulation, extracorporeal membrane oxygenation protocols, body temperature management procedures, rapid cardiac angiography, and intensive involvement of medical directors, operational and quality assurance officers, and training staff. MEASUREMENTS AND MAIN RESULTS: Compared with Cardiac Arrest Registry to Enhance Survival (n = 78,704), the cohorts from the 10 emergency medical services agencies examined (n = 2,911) demonstrated significantly increased likelihoods of return of spontaneous circulation (mean 37.4% vs 31.5%; p < 0.001) and neurologically favorable hospital discharge, particularly after witnessed collapses involving bystander cardiopulmonary resuscitation and shockable cardiac rhythms (mean 10.7% vs 8.4%; p < 0.001; and 41.6% vs 29.2%; p < 0.001, respectively). CONCLUSIONS: The likelihood of neurologically favorable survival following out-of-hospital cardiac arrest can improve substantially in communities that conscientiously and meticulously introduce a well-sequenced, highly choreographed, system-wide portfolio of both traditional and nonconventional approaches to training, technologies, and physiologic management. The commonalities found in the analyzed systems create a compelling case that other communities can also improve out-of-hospital cardiac arrest outcomes significantly by conscientiously exploring and adopting similar bundles of system organization and care.

Emerging hemorrhage control and resuscitation strategies in trauma: Endovascular to extracorporeal.

This article reviews four emerging endovascular hemorrhage control and extracorporeal perfusion techniques for management of trauma patients with profound hemorrhagic shock including hemorrhage-induced traumatic cardiac arrest: resuscitative endovascular balloon occlusion of the aorta, selective aortic arch perfusion, extracorporeal life support, and emergency preservation and resuscitation. The preclinical and clinical studies underpinning each of these techniques are summarized. We also present an integrated conceptual framework for how these emerging technologies may be used in the future care of trauma patients in both resource-rich and austere environments.

Feasibility and Clinical Outcome of Reboa in Patients with Impending Traumatic Cardiac Arrest.

BACKGROUND: Resuscitative Endovascular Balloon Occlusion of the Aorta (REBOA) may improve Systolic Blood Pressure (SBP) in hypovolemic shock. It has, however, not been studied in patients with impending traumatic cardiac arrest (ITCA). We aimed to study the feasibility and clinical outcome of REBOA in patients with ITCA using data from the ABOTrauma Registry. METHODS: Retrospective and prospective data on the use of REBOA from 16 centers globally were collected. SBP was measured both at pre- and post-REBOA inflation. Data collected included patients' demography, vascular access technique, number of attempts, catheter size, operator, zone and duration of occlusion, and clinical outcome. RESULTS: There were 74 patients in this high-risk patient group. REBOA was performed on all patients. A 7-10Fr catheter was used in 66.7% and 58.5% were placed on the first attempt, 52.1% through blind insertion and 93.2% inflated in Zone I, 64.8% for a period of 30 to 60 min, 82.1% by ER doctors, trauma surgeons, or vascular surgeons. SBP significantly improved to 90 mm Hg following the inflation of REBOA. 36.6% of the patients survived. CONCLUSIONS: Our study has shown that REBOA may be performed in patients with ITCA, SBP can be elevated, and 36.6% of the patients survived if REBOA placement is successful.

Selective aortic arch perfusion with fresh whole blood or HBOC-201 reverses hemorrhage-induced traumatic cardiac arrest in a lethal model of noncompressible torso hemorrhage.

BACKGROUND: Hemorrhage-induced traumatic cardiac arrest (HiTCA) has a dismal survival rate. Previous studies demonstrated selective aortic arch perfusion (SAAP) with fresh whole blood (FWB) improved the rate of return of spontaneous circulation (ROSC) after HiTCA, compared with resuscitative endovascular balloon occlusion of the aorta and cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR). Hemoglobin-based oxygen carriers, such as hemoglobin-based oxygen carrier (HBOC)-201, may alleviate the logistical constraints of using FWB in a prehospital setting. It is unknown whether SAAP with HBOC-201 is equivalent in efficacy to FWB, whether conversion from SAAP to extracorporeal life support (ECLS) is feasible, and whether physiologic derangement post-SAAP therapy is reversible. METHODS: Twenty-six swine (79 ± 4 kg) were anesthetized and underwent HiTCA which was induced via liver injury and controlled hemorrhage. Following arrest, swine were randomly allocated to resuscitation using SAAP with FWB (n = 12) or HBOC-201 (n = 14). After SAAP was initiated, animals were monitored for a 20-minute prehospital period prior to a 40-minute damage control surgery and resuscitation phase, followed by 260 minutes of critical care. Primary outcomes included rate of ROSC, survival, conversion to ECLS, and correction of physiology. RESULTS: Baseline physiologic measurements were similar between groups. ROSC was achieved in 100% of the FWB animals and 86% of the HBOC-201 animals (p = 0.483). Survival (t = 320 minutes) was 92% (11/12) in the FWB group and 67% (8/12) in the HBOC-201 group (p = 0.120). Conversion to ECLS was successful in 100% of both groups. Lactate peaked at 80 minutes in both groups, and significantly improved by the end of the experiment in the HBOC-201 group (p = 0.001) but not in the FWB group (p = 0.104). There was no significant difference in peak or end lactate between groups. CONCLUSION: Selective aortic arch perfusion is effective in eliciting ROSC after HiTCA in a swine model, using either FWB or HBOC-201. Transition from SAAP to ECLS after definitive hemorrhage control is feasible, resulting in high overall survival and improvement in lactic acidosis over the study period.

A comparison of Selective Aortic Arch Perfusion and Resuscitative Endovascular Balloon Occlusion of the Aorta for the management of hemorrhage-induced traumatic cardiac arrest: A translational model in large swine.

BACKGROUND: Survival rates remain low after hemorrhage-induced traumatic cardiac arrest (TCA). Noncompressible torso hemorrhage (NCTH) is a major cause of potentially survivable trauma death. Resuscitative Endovascular Balloon Occlusion of the Aorta (REBOA) at the thoracic aorta (Zone 1) can limit subdiaphragmatic blood loss and allow for IV fluid resuscitation when intrinsic cardiac activity is still present. Selective Aortic Arch Perfusion (SAAP) combines thoracic aortic balloon hemorrhage control with intra-aortic oxygenated perfusion to achieve return of spontaneous circulation (ROSC) when cardiac arrest has occurred. METHODS AND FINDINGS: Male Yorkshire Landrace cross swine (80.0 ± 6.0 kg) underwent anesthesia, instrumentation for monitoring, and splenectomy. TCA was induced by laparoscopic liver lobe resection combined with arterial catheter blood withdrawal to achieve a sustained systolic blood pressure <10 mmHg, cardiac arrest. After 3 min of arrest, swine were allocated to one of three interventions: (1) REBOA plus 4 units of IV fresh whole blood (FWB), (2) SAAP with oxygenated lactated Ringer's (LR), 1,600 mL/2 min, or (3) SAAP with oxygenated FWB 1,600 mL/2 min. Primary endpoint was survival to the end of 60 min of resuscitation, a simulated prehospital phase. Thirty animals were allocated to 3 groups (10 per group)-5 protocol exclusions resulted in a total of 35 animals being used. Baseline measurements and time to cardiac arrest were not different amongst groups. ROSC was achieved in 0/10 (0%, 95% CI 0.00-30.9) REBOA, 6/10 (60%, 95% CI 26.2-87.8) SAAP-LR and 10/10 (100%, 95% CI 69.2-100.0) SAAP-FWB animals, p < 0.001. Survival to end of simulated 60-minute prehospital resuscitation was 0/10 (0%, 95% CI 0.00-30.9) for REBOA, 1/10 (10%, 95% CI 0.25-44.5) for SAAP-LR and 9/10 (90%, 95% CI 55.5-99.7) for SAAP-FWB, p < 0.001. Total FWB infusion volume was similar for REBOA (2,452 ± 0 mL) and SAAP-FWB (2,250 ± 594 mL). This study was undertaken in laboratory conditions, and as such may have practical limitations when applied clinically. Cardiac arrest in this study was defined by intra-aortic pressure monitoring that is not feasible in clinical practice, and as such limits the generalizability of findings. Clinical trials are needed to determine if the beneficial effects of SAAP-FWB observed in this laboratory study will translate into improved survival in clinical practice. CONCLUSIONS: SAAP conferred a superior short-term survival over REBOA in this large animal model of hemorrhage-induced traumatic cardiac arrest with NCTH. SAAP using an oxygen-carrying perfusate was more effective in this study than non-oxygen carrying solutions in TCA. SAAP can effect ROSC from hemorrhage-induced electrocardiographic asystole in large swine.

Aortic Hemostasis and Resuscitation: Preliminary Experiments Using Selective Aortic Arch Perfusion With Oxygenated Blood and Intra-aortic Calcium Coadministration in a Model of Hemorrhage-induced Traumatic Cardiac Arrest.

OBJECTIVES: Selective aortic arch perfusion (SAAP) uses a thoracic aortic balloon occlusion catheter for heart and brain perfusion in cardiac arrest to achieve return of spontaneous circulation (ROSC). SAAP with oxygenated stored blood was studied in a model of hemorrhage-induced cardiac arrest. The study hypothesis was that intra-aortic calcium coadministration would be required to maintain normal aortic arch blood ionized calcium during SAAP and to achieve ROSC. METHODS: Twelve anesthetized, domestic swine underwent severe hemorrhage and liver injury resulting in cardiac arrest. Whole blood and packed red blood cells (RBCs) stored in citrate anticoagulant served as perfusates for SAAP. Experiments were performed with four combinations of SAAP with oxygenated stored blood and intra-aortic calcium gluconate infusion: 1) whole blood without calcium, 2) whole blood with calcium, 3) lactated Ringers-diluted packed RBCs with calcium, and 4) normal saline-diluted packed RBCs with calcium. Aortic arch blood ionized calcium was monitored. Occurrence of ventricular dysrhythmias, success rate for ROSC, and the need for simultaneous intra-aortic calcium infusion were assessed. RESULTS: Selective aortic arch perfusion using whole blood without intra-aortic calcium (n = 2) resulted in severe aortic blood ionized hypocalcemia, refractory ventricular fibrillation, and no ROSC. SAAP using whole blood with intra-aortic calcium (n = 4) resulted in ROSC in all four animals. Two of four developed ventricular fibrillation that was successfully defibrillated. SAAP using packed RBCs with intra-aortic calcium resulted in ROSC in all six animals, but the intra-aortic calcium dose needed to maintain normal aortic arch blood ionized calcium levels was one-third of that needed for SAAP with whole blood. Dilution of packed RBCs with lactated Ringers (n = 2) resulted in formation of small clots in the perfusion circuit which were not seen with packed RBCs diluted with normal saline (n = 4). CONCLUSIONS: Selective aortic arch perfusion with stored whole blood or packed RBCs requires simultaneous intra-aortic calcium infusion to overcome citrate anticoagulant calcium binding, avoid refractory ventricular fibrillation, and allow for ROSC.

Endovascular resuscitation techniques for severe hemorrhagic shock and traumatic arrest in the presurgical setting.

Novel aortic catheter-based resuscitation interventions aimed at control of noncompressible torso hemorrhage and resuscitative perfusion are undergoing active research and development. These methods have been reported as resuscitative endovascular balloon occlusion of the aorta, selective aortic arch perfusion, and profound hypothermia (emergency preservation and resuscitation). These interventions are advanced options to treat noncompressible torso hemorrhage and hemorrhage-induced traumatic cardiac arrest in the presurgical environment. However, to achieve maximum potential benefit, such interventions need to be initiated as soon as possible. This means that these advanced interventions should be adapted for use in austere military treatment facilities and, when feasible, initiated at the point of injury. This report argues for the feasibility of advanced endovascular resuscitation interventions in the austere military theater.

Feasibility of blind aortic catheter placement in the prehospital environment to guide resuscitation in cardiac arrest.

BACKGROUND: Aortic catheter-based resuscitation therapies are emerging with laboratory investigations showing benefit in models of trauma-related noncompressible torso hemorrhage and nontraumatic cardiac arrest. For these investigational aortic catheter-based therapies to reach their greatest potential clinical benefit, the ability to initiate them in the prehospital setting will be important. Feasibility of prehospital aortic catheterization without imaging capability supports this potential and is described in this report. METHODS: A physician prehospital response system was created in cooperation with the local emergency medical services system to provide invasive hemodynamic monitoring during cardiac arrest. Physicians were dispatched to all known or suspected prehospital cardiac arrests covered by the emergency medical services system. Physicians responded with a specialized vascular catheterization pack and a monitor with invasive pressure monitoring capability. The physicians performed blind thoracic aortic and central venous catheterizations in cardiac arrest patients in the prehospital setting to measure coronary perfusion pressure, to optimize closed-chest cardiopulmonary resuscitation technique, and to administer intra-aortic epinephrine. RESULTS: During a 2-year period, 22 medical cardiac arrest patients underwent prehospital invasive hemodynamic monitoring to guide resuscitation. Most patients had both aortic and central venous catheters inserted. The combination of intra-aortic epinephrine and adjustments in closed-chest cardiopulmonary resuscitation technique resulted in improved coronary perfusion pressure. Return of spontaneous circulation with survival to hospital admission was achieved in 50% (11 of 22) of these patients. CONCLUSION: This report demonstrates the feasibility of successful blind aortic and central venous catheterizations in the prehospital environment and supports the potential feasibility of other emerging aortic catheter-based resuscitation therapies.

Nitroglycerin attenuates vasoconstriction of HBOC-201 during hemorrhagic shock resuscitation.

BACKGROUND: Vasoconstriction, an inherent property of Hemoglobin Based Oxygen Carriers (HBOC) potentially due to nitric oxide (NO) scavenging, may increase cardiovascular complications in HBOC resuscitated trauma patients. The purpose of this study was to determine if co-administration of a weak NO donor, intravenous nitroglycerin (NTG), with HBOC-201 during resuscitation from hemorrhagic shock could safely attenuate HBOC-201 vasoconstriction. METHODS AND RESULTS: Hemorrhagic shock was induced in 44 swine randomized to receive fluid resuscitation with HBOC, HBOC+NTG10 mcg/kg/min, HBOC+NTG20 mcg/kg/min, HBOC+NTG40 mcg/kg/min, Hetastarch (HES), HES+NTG20 mcg/kg/min, NTG20 mcg/kg/min and Lactated Ringers (LR). HBOC resuscitation from hemorrhagic shock increased mean arterial pressure (MAP=94+/-33 mmHg), mean pulmonary artery pressure (MPAP=29+/-11 mmHg) and systemic vascular resistance (SVR=2684+/-871 dyns/cm(5)) in comparison to HES. Co-administration of NTG during HBOC resuscitation attenuated vasoconstriction with HBOC+40 mcg/kg/min demonstrating the most robust reduction in vasoconstriction (MAP=59+/-23 mmHg, MPAP=18+/-7 mmHg, and SVR=1827+/-511 dyns/cm(5)), although the effects were transient. Co-administration of NTG with HBOC did not alter base deficit, lactate, methemoglobin levels, nor cause profound hypotension during resuscitation. CONCLUSION: Nitroglycerin attenuates vasoconstrictive properties of HBOC when co-administered during resuscitation in this swine model of hemorrhagic shock. Translational survival studies are required to determine if this strategy of attenuation of the vasoconstriction of HBOC-201 reduces cardiovascular complications and improves outcome with HBOC fluid resuscitation for hemorrhagic shock.

3D medical collaboration technology to enhance emergency healthcare.

Two-dimensional (2D) videoconferencing has been explored widely in the past 15-20 years to support collaboration in healthcare. Two issues that arise in most evaluations of 2D videoconferencing in telemedicine are the difficulty obtaining optimal camera views and poor depth perception. To address these problems, we are exploring the use of a small array of cameras to reconstruct dynamic three-dimensional (3D) views of a remote environment and of events taking place within. The 3D views could be sent across wired or wireless networks to remote healthcare professionals equipped with fixed displays or with mobile devices such as personal digital assistants (PDAs). The remote professionals' viewpoints could be specified manually or automatically (continuously) via user head or PDA tracking, giving the remote viewers head-slaved or hand-slaved virtual cameras for monoscopic or stereoscopic viewing of the dynamic reconstructions. We call this idea remote 3D medical collaboration. In this article we motivate and explain the vision for 3D medical collaboration technology; we describe the relevant computer vision, computer graphics, display, and networking research; we present a proof-of-concept prototype system; and we present evaluation results supporting the general hypothesis that 3D remote medical collaboration technology could offer benefits over conventional 2D videoconferencing in emergency healthcare.

The design and testing of a dual fiber textile matrix for accelerating surface hemostasis.

The standard treatment for severe traumatic injury is frequently compression and application of gauze dressing to the site of hemorrhage. However, while able to rapidly absorb pools of shed blood, gauze fails to provide strong surface (topical) hemostasis. The result can be excess hemorrhage-related morbidity and mortality. We hypothesized that cost-effective materials (based on widespread availability of bulk fibers for other commercial uses) could be designed based on fundamental hemostatic principles to partially emulate the wicking properties of gauze while concurrently stimulating superior hemostasis. A panel of readily available textile fibers was screened for the ability to activate platelets and the intrinsic coagulation cascade in vitro. Type E continuous filament glass and a specialty rayon fiber were identified from the material panel as accelerators of hemostatic reactions and were custom woven to produce a dual fiber textile bandage. The glass component strongly activated platelets while the specialty rayon agglutinated red blood cells. In comparison with gauze in vitro, the dual fiber textile significantly enhanced the rate of thrombin generation, clot generation as measured by thromboelastography, adhesive protein adsorption and cellular attachment and activation. These results indicate that hemostatic textiles can be designed that mimic gauze in form but surpass gauze in ability to accelerate hemostatic reactions.

Pulse contour cardiac output analysis in a piglet model of severe hemorrhagic shock.

OBJECTIVE: Pulse contour cardiac output (PCCO) analysis is a technique for continuous cardiac output (CO) monitoring through an arterial catheter after calibration by transpulmonary thermodilution (TPTD). Studies in adults show good correlation with pulmonary artery thermodilution (PATD) CO. Data are limited in children and patients with hemodynamic instability. The objective was to determine whether TPTD CO and PCCO analysis correlate with PATD CO in a piglet model of severe hemorrhagic shock. Mixed venous oxygen saturation (SVO2) was also compared with PATD CO. DESIGN: Prospective animal study. SETTING: University animal research laboratory. SUBJECTS: Domesticated piglets, 24-37 kg. INTERVENTIONS: Hemorrhagic shock was created by graded hemorrhage in anesthetized piglets. Hemorrhage was initiated to achieve mean arterial pressure plateaus of 60, 50, 40, 30, and 20 mm Hg. MEASUREMENTS AND MAIN RESULTS: CO was measured by PATD and simultaneously with two femoral artery PCCO catheters. At each mean arterial pressure plateau, one PCCO catheter was recalibrated by TPTD; the other catheter was not recalibrated during hemorrhage. TPTD CO, PCCO measurements from each catheter, and SVO2 were compared with PATD CO at each mean arterial pressure level. TPTD CO and recalibrated PCCO showed excellent correlation (r2 = .96 and .97) and small bias (+0.11 and +0.14 L/min), respectively, compared with PATD. Without recalibration, PCCO measurements were not accurate during rapid hemorrhage (r2 = .22). SVO2 decline did not correlate as well with PATD CO (r2 = .69). CONCLUSIONS: TPTD CO and recalibrated PCCO analysis correlate well with PATD CO in this severe hemorrhagic shock model. The mean difference is small (<0.15 L/min) and is not clinically significant. With rapid changes in blood pressure or intravascular volume, PCCO is not accurate unless recalibrated by TPTD CO. SVO2 did not correlate well with CO in this model.

HBOC-201 improves survival in a swine model of hemorrhagic shock and liver injury.

BACKGROUND: Blunt abdominal trauma that leads to hemorrhagic shock and cardiac arrest is almost always fatal in the prehospital setting. The current study investigated whether a hemoglobin-based oxygen carrier (HBOC-201) could maintain organ viability during an exsanguinating liver injury and allow for prolonged survival. This hypothesis was tested in a large animal model that simulated blunt abdominal trauma with major organ injury. METHODS: Swine underwent a liver crush, laceration and 50 ml/kg initial blood loss. The liver bled at 3 ml/kg per min during the resuscitation phase. No fluid (NF=6), hetastarch (HES=8), or HBOC-201 (HBOC=8) was given during the resuscitation phase. Swine alive 60 min after the initial injury underwent liver repair and 96 h observation. RESULTS: All HBOC swine survived 60 min versus none of the NF or HES swine (P<0.05). All HBOC swine survived 24 h and 7/8 survived 96 h with good functional recovery. CONCLUSIONS: HBOC resuscitation during liver bleeding in a swine model of hemorrhagic shock and liver injury allowed for 96 h survival. No fluid or HES in the same model was fatal.