Cetuximab for Immunotherapy-Refractory/Ineligible Cutaneous Squamous Cell Carcinoma.

Anti-PD1 therapy demonstrated impressive, prolonged responses in advanced cutaneous squamous cell carcinoma (CSCC). Therapy for ICI-refractory/ineligible disease remains unclear. We performed a retrospective analysis in locally-advanced/metastatic CSCC using cetuximab across three cohorts: immediately after ICI failure (A), not immediately following ICI failure (B), or without prior ICI (C). The primary endpoint was the overall response rate (ORR). Secondary endpoints included disease-control rate (DCR), progression-free survival (PFS), overall survival (OS), time-to-response (TTR) and toxicity. Twenty-three patients were included. In cohort A (n = 11), the ORR was 64% and DCR was 91%, with six ongoing responses at data cutoff. In cohort B (n = 2), all patients had progression as the best response. At a median follow-up of 21 months for A and B, TTR and PFS were 2.0 and 17.3 months, respectively. The median OS was not reached. In cohort C (n = 10), the ORR and DCR were 80%, including five ongoing responses at the data cutoff. At a median follow-up of 22.4 months, the TTR, PFS and OS were 2.5, 7.3 and 23.1 months, respectively. Cetuximab was well tolerated in all cohorts. In summary, cetuximab is effective in patients with failure/contraindications to ICI. Cetuximab immediately after ICI failure yielded particularly fast, durable responses. If confirmed, this could be the preferred therapy following ICI failure.

Treatment Strategies for Non-Small Cell Lung Cancer with Common EGFR Mutations: A Review of the History of EGFR TKIs Approval and Emerging Data.

The development of targeted therapies over the past two decades has led to a dramatic change in the management of EGFR-mutant non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC). While there are currently five approved EGFR tyrosine kinase inhibitors (TKIs) for treating EGFR-mutant NSCLC in the first-line setting, therapy selection after progression on EGFR TKIs remains complex. Multiple groups are investigating novel therapies and drug combinations to determine the optimal therapy and treatment sequence for these patients. In this review, we summarize the landmark trials and history of the approval of EGFR TKIs, their efficacy and tolerability, and the role of these therapies in patients with central nervous system metastasis. We also briefly discuss the mechanisms of resistance to EGFR TKIs, ongoing attempts to overcome resistance and improve outcomes, and finalize by offering treatment sequencing recommendations.

Immune Checkpoint Inhibitors and Chemoradiation for Limited-Stage Small Cell Lung Cancer.

OPINION STATEMENT: Limited-stage small cell lung cancer (LS-SCLC) is a potentially curable disease. However, most patients develop disease relapse shortly after definitive treatment. The landmark trials IMpower133 and CASPIAN demonstrated a survival benefit with the addition of immunotherapy to first-line platinum/etoposide for extensive-stage small cell lung cancer. Therefore, it is critical to determine whether advancements in overall survival with immunotherapy can be translated earlier into the treatment paradigm for LS-SCLC. Decades of robust preclinical research into the synergism of radiation therapy and immunotherapy set the stage for the combination of these treatment modalities. Recently published data suggests tolerability of single agent immunotherapy concurrent with chemoradiation in LS-SCLC, along with promising efficacy. However, combination immunotherapy in the consolidation setting appears too toxic, although this may be reflective of the dosing schedule rather than inherent to any combination immune checkpoint blockade. Here, we review underlying mechanisms of synergy with the combination of radiation and immunotherapy, the safety and efficacy of respective treatment modalities, and the ongoing trials that are exploring novel therapeutic approaches for LS-SCLC. Pivotal trials in LS-SCLC are ongoing and anticipated to aid in understanding efficacy and safety of immunotherapy with concurrent platinum-based chemoradiotherapy.

Immunotherapy for Advanced Non-Small Cell Lung Cancer: A Decade of Progress.

The treatment paradigm for patients with advanced non-small cell lung cancer has substantially changed with the discovery of immunotherapy. The incorporation of immunotherapy into treatment algorithms has resulted in better outcomes for patients, with fewer side effects compared with classic chemotherapeutic agents. Multiple treatment options are now available for patients with advanced non-small cell lung cancer, ranging from single-agent immunotherapy to quadruple therapy, which involves dual immune checkpoint inhibitor plus chemotherapy or immune checkpoint inhibitor plus chemotherapy plus anti-vascular endothelial growth factor drugs. This article will review landmark studies that have led to U.S. Food and Drug Administration approval of immunotherapy agents alone or in combination with chemotherapy or other immunotherapy drugs to treat advanced non-small cell lung cancer.

Immunotherapies targeting stimulatory pathways and beyond.

Co-stimulatory and co-inhibitory molecules play a critical role in T cell function. Tumor cells escape immune surveillance by promoting immunosuppression. Immunotherapy targeting inhibitory molecules like anti-CTLA-4 and anti-PD-1/PD-L1 were developed to overcome these immunosuppressive effects. These agents have demonstrated remarkable, durable responses in a small subset of patients. The other mechanisms for enhancing anti-tumor activities are to target the stimulatory pathways that are expressed on T cells or other immune cells. In this review, we summarize current phase I/II clinical trials evaluating novel immunotherapies targeting stimulatory pathways and outline their advantages, limitations, and future directions.

Next generation of immune checkpoint inhibitors and beyond.

The immune system is the core defense against cancer development and progression. Failure of the immune system to recognize and eliminate malignant cells plays an important role in the pathogenesis of cancer. Tumor cells evade immune recognition, in part, due to the immunosuppressive features of the tumor microenvironment. Immunotherapy augments the host immune system to generate an antitumor effect. Immune checkpoints are pathways with inhibitory or stimulatory features that maintain self-tolerance and assist with immune response. The most well-described checkpoints are inhibitory in nature and include the cytotoxic T lymphocyte-associated molecule-4 (CTLA-4), programmed cell death receptor-1 (PD-1), and programmed cell death ligand-1 (PD-L1). Molecules that block these pathways to enhance the host immunologic activity against tumors have been developed and become standard of care in the treatment of many malignancies. Only a small percentage of patients have meaningful responses to these treatments, however. New pathways and molecules are being explored in an attempt to improve responses and application of immune checkpoint inhibition therapy. In this review, we aim to elucidate these novel immune inhibitory pathways, potential therapeutic molecules that are under development, and outline particular advantages and challenges with the use of each one of them.

Trends in the risk of second primary malignancies among survivors of chronic lymphocytic leukemia.

With improving survivorship in chronic lymphocytic leukemia (CLL), the risk of second primary malignancies (SPMs) has not been systematically addressed. Differences in risk for SPMs among CLL survivors from the Surveillance, Epidemiology, and End Results (SEER) database (1973-2015) were compared to risk of individual malignancies expected in the general population. In ~270,000 person-year follow-up, 6487 new SPMs were diagnosed with a standardized incidence ratio (SIR) of 1.2 (95% CI:1.17-1.23). The higher risk was for both solid (SIR 1.15; 95% CI:1.12-1.18) and hematological malignancies (SIR 1.61; 95% CI:1.5-1.73). The highest risk for SPMs was noted between 2 and 5 months after CLL diagnosis (SIR 1.57; 95% CI:1.41-1.74) and for CLL patients between 50- and 79-years-old. There was a significant increase in SPMs in years 2003-2015 (SIR 1.36; 95% CI:1.3-1.42) as compared to 1973-1982 (SIR 1.19; 95% CI:1.12-1.26). The risk of SPMs was higher in CLL patients who had received prior chemotherapy (SIR 1.38 95% CI:1.31-1.44) as compared to those untreated/treatment status unknown (SIR 1.16, 95% CI:1.13-1.19, p < 0.001). In a multivariate analysis, the hazard of developing SPMs was higher among men, post-chemotherapy, recent years of diagnosis, advanced age, and non-Whites. Active survivorship plans and long-term surveillance for SPMs is crucial for improved outcomes of patients with a history of CLL.

Biomarkers of hyperprogression and pseudoprogression with immune checkpoint inhibitor therapy.

Hyperprogression and pseudoprogression are two atypical responses to immune checkpoint inhibitor therapy that affect therapeutic decisions and prognosis. Identification of predictive biomarkers for atypical responses either before or during treatment remains a huge unmet need in cancer immunotherapy. Many studies have looked at potential biomarkers, including clinical factors and laboratory findings (e.g., peripheral blood counts, circulating tumor DNA, cytokine levels). The results of these studies have been inconsistent, possibly due to small sample sizes, different tumor types and heterogeneity of the definition of these atypical responses.

Immune Checkpoint Inhibitor Toxicities.

Immune checkpoint inhibitors are molecules that increase the endogenous immune response against tumors. They have revolutionized the field of oncology. Since their initial approval for the treatment of advanced melanoma, their use has expanded to the treatment of several other advanced cancers. Unfortunately, immune checkpoint inhibitors have also been associated with the emergence of a new subset of autoimmune-like toxicities, known as immune-related adverse events. These toxicities differ depending on the agent, malignancy, and individual susceptibilities. Although the skin and colon are most commonly involved, any organ may be affected, including the liver, lungs, kidneys, and heart. Most of these toxicities are diagnosed by excluding other secondary infectious or inflammatory causes. Corticosteroids are commonly used for treatment of moderate and severe immune-related adverse events, although additional immunosuppressive therapy may occasionally be required. The occurrence of immune-related toxicities may require discontinuation of immunotherapy, depending on the specific toxicity and its severity. In this article, we provide a focused review to familiarize practicing clinicians with this important topic given that the use of immune checkpoint inhibitors continues to increase.

Hypereosinophilia in a patient with metastatic non-small-cell lung cancer treated with antiprogrammed cell death 1 (anti-PD-1) therapy.

Immune checkpoint inhibitors have changed the treatment paradigm for patients with cancer. Though a majority of patients tolerate treatment, some develop hematologic toxicities, including eosinophilia. Eosinophilia has been associated with better responses in some patients with melanoma, but this has not been investigated in non-small-cell lung cancer. We present a case of a woman with metastatic lung adenocarcinoma who developed asymptomatic hypereosinophilia after initiation of nivolumab. Her eosinophil count temporarily decreased after transiently stopping the medication, but increased again after re-initiation. She had a favorable tumor response to therapy. This exemplifies the potential role of eosinophilia as a peripheral, readily available biomarker of favorable response to immunotherapy in patients with lung cancer. Awareness of this manifestation is important.

Cardiac sarcoidosis: Case presentation and Review of the literature.

Cardiac sarcoidosis usually occurs in the context of systemic disease; however, isolated cardiac involvement can occur in up to 25% of cases and tends to be clinically silent. When symptoms are present, they are often nonspecific and occasionally fatal, representing a diagnostic challenge. A high index of clinical suspicion and the integration of appropriate imaging, laboratory, and pathologic findings is always required. Treatment aims to control the systemic inflammatory condition while preventing further cardiac damage. However, even with adequate diagnosis and treatment strategies, prognosis remains poor. We describe the case of a patient who presented with cardiac symptoms, whose initial examination was unrevealing. Diagnosis was made retrospectively based on later systemic manifestations that revealed characteristic sarcoidosis findings.

Peripheral blood biomarkers correlate with outcomes in advanced non-small cell lung Cancer patients treated with anti-PD-1 antibodies.

BACKGROUND: Anti-programmed cell death 1 (PD-1) antibodies have demonstrated improved overall survival (OS) and progression-free survival (PFS) in a subset of patients with metastatic or locally advanced non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC). To date, no blood biomarkers have been identified in NSCLC to predict clinical outcomes of treatment with anti-PD-1 antibodies. PATIENT AND METHODS: We performed an analysis of retrospectively registered data of 157 patients with advanced NSCLC treated with anti-PD-1 antibodies at Mayo Clinic in Florida and Rochester. White blood cell count, absolute neutrophil count (ANC), absolute lymphocyte count (ALC), ANC to ALC (ANC: ALC) ratio, absolute eosinophil count, absolute monocyte count (AMC), platelet counts, and myeloid to lymphoid (M:L) ratio at baseline and throughout treatment were assessed. Kaplan-Meier method and Cox proportional hazards model were performed. RESULTS: We treated 146 patients with nivolumab and 11 with pembrolizumab between January 1, 2015 and April 15, 2017. At median follow-up of 20 months, median OS and PFS were 6.0 and 2.6 months, respectively. Higher baseline ANC, AMC, ANC: ALC ratio and M: L ratio correlated with worse clinical outcomes in patients who underwent anti-PD-1 treatment. A baseline ANC: ALC ratio of 5.9 or higher had a significantly increased risk of death (hazard ratio [HR] =1.94; 95% confidence interval [CI], 1.24-3.03; P = 0.004) and disease progression (HR, 1.65; 95% CI, 1.17-2.34; P = 0.005) compared with patients with lower ratio. Similarly, a baseline M: L ratio of 11.3 or higher had significantly increased risk of death (HR, 2.5; 95% CI, 1.54-4.05; P < 0.001), even after a multivariate analysis (HR, 2.31; P = 0.002), compared to those with lower ratio. CONCLUSIONS: Increased baseline ANC: ALC ratio and M: L ratio before initiation of anti-PD1 antibodies were associated with poor PFS and OS in advanced NSCLC patients. The potential predictive value of these readily available biomarkers might help with risk stratification and treatment strategies. These findings warrant further investigation in a larger, prospective study.

Recurrent Syncope, a Clue in Amyloid Cardiomyopathy.

Infiltrative cardiomyopathies include a variety of disorders that lead to myocardial thickening resulting in a constellation of clinical manifestations and eventually heart failure that could be the first clue to reach the diagnosis. Among the more described infiltrative diseases of the heart is amyloid cardiomyopathy. The disease usually presents with subtle, nonspecific symptoms. Herein, we illustrate a case of recurrent syncope as the initial presenting symptom for systemic amyloid with polyneuropathy and cardiomyopathy as a cause of syncope. The article illustrates the role of advanced cardiac imaging in the diagnosis of the disease with a focused literature review. We also highlight the role of early, shared decision-making between patient, family, and medical team in the management of cardiac amyloidosis.

Next generation of immune checkpoint therapy in cancer: new developments and challenges.

Immune checkpoints consist of inhibitory and stimulatory pathways that maintain self-tolerance and assist with immune response. In cancer, immune checkpoint pathways are often activated to inhibit the nascent anti-tumor immune response. Immune checkpoint therapies act by blocking or stimulating these pathways and enhance the body's immunological activity against tumors. Cytotoxic T lymphocyte-associated molecule-4 (CTLA-4), programmed cell death receptor-1 (PD-1), and programmed cell death ligand-1(PD-L1) are the most widely studied and recognized inhibitory checkpoint pathways. Drugs blocking these pathways are currently utilized for a wide variety of malignancies and have demonstrated durable clinical activities in a subset of cancer patients. This approach is rapidly extending beyond CTLA-4 and PD-1/PD-L1. New inhibitory pathways are under investigation, and drugs blocking LAG-3, TIM-3, TIGIT, VISTA, or B7/H3 are being investigated. Furthermore, agonists of stimulatory checkpoint pathways such as OX40, ICOS, GITR, 4-1BB, CD40, or molecules targeting tumor microenvironment components like IDO or TLR are under investigation. In this article, we have provided a comprehensive review of immune checkpoint pathways involved in cancer immunotherapy, and discuss their mechanisms and the therapeutic interventions currently under investigation in phase I/II clinical trials. We also reviewed the limitations, toxicities, and challenges and outline the possible future research directions.

Immunotherapy-Induced Colitis: An Emerging Problem for the Hospitalist.

Since their introduction for melanoma treatment, the use of immune checkpoint inhibitors (ICIs) has rapidly expanded. Though their impact on survival is irrefutable, these medications have been associated with autoimmune-like adverse events related to their ability to induce the immune system. One of the most commonly affected organ systems is the gastrointestinal (GI) tract, in which manifestations range from mild diarrhea to severe colitis with intestinal perforation. Because of the increased use of ICIs, hospitalists are caring for an increasing number of patients experiencing their adverse events. We present a case-oriented review of the GI adverse events associated with the use of ICIs to familiarize the hospitalist with their mechanism of action and potential complications and to emphasize the importance of early diagnosis and treatment to decrease morbidity and mortality.

Cancer immunotherapy beyond immune checkpoint inhibitors.

Malignant cells have the capacity to rapidly grow exponentially and spread in part by suppressing, evading, and exploiting the host immune system. Immunotherapy is a form of oncologic treatment directed towards enhancing the host immune system against cancer. In recent years, manipulation of immune checkpoints or pathways has emerged as an important and effective form of immunotherapy. Agents that target cytotoxic T lymphocyte-associated molecule-4 (CTLA-4), programmed cell death receptor-1 (PD-1), and programmed cell death ligand-1 (PD-L1) are the most widely studied and recognized. Immunotherapy, however, extends beyond immune checkpoint therapy by using new molecules such as chimeric monoclonal antibodies and antibody drug conjugates that target malignant cells and promote their destruction. Genetically modified T cells expressing chimeric antigen receptors are able to recognize specific antigens on cancer cells and subsequently activate the immune system. Native or genetically modified viruses with oncolytic activity are of great interest as, besides destroying malignant cells, they can increase anti-tumor activity in response to the release of new antigens and danger signals as a result of infection and tumor cell lysis. Vaccines are also being explored, either in the form of autologous or allogenic tumor peptide antigens, genetically modified dendritic cells that express tumor peptides, or even in the use of RNA, DNA, bacteria, or virus as vectors of specific tumor markers. Most of these agents are yet under development, but they promise to be important options to boost the host immune system to control and eliminate malignancy. In this review, we have provided detailed discussion of different forms of immunotherapy agents other than checkpoint-modifying drugs. The specific focus of this manuscript is to include first-in-human phase I and phase I/II clinical trials intended to allow the identification of those drugs that most likely will continue to develop and possibly join the immunotherapeutic arsenal in a near future.