Immediate postpartum management of patients with severe hypertensive disorders of pregnancy: pathophysiology guiding practice.

Developing clinically-focused evidence and experience-based approaches to improve maternity care is a national priority. Safety and quality collaborative initiatives related to management of hypertensive disorders of pregnancy are vital in the implementation of improved care. We reviewed the obstetric literature to construct a concise summary of the core pathophysiologic issues, practice principles and clinical interventions which are foundational for physicians providing immediate postpartum care for patients with severe pregnancy-related hypertension (including those with eclampsia, HELLP syndrome, and superimposed preeclampsia inclusive of those with gestational hypertension that develop severe range blood pressures). While based largely upon the American College of Obstetrics and Gynecology (ACOG) Hypertension Task Force Guidelines released in 2013 as well as updated 2018 guidelines set forth by ACOG for hypertensive disorders of pregnancy, this summary goes beyond the basic safety bundles for hypertension management and lays a pathophysiologic foundation for the immediate postpartum care of patients with severe hypertensive disorders of pregnancy.

Preterm parturition and pre-eclampsia: The confluence of two great gestational syndromes.

BACKGROUND: Preterm birth (PTB) and pre-eclampsia independently, and frequently concurrently, adversely affect the pregnancy outcomes of millions of mothers and infants worldwide each year. OBJECTIVES: To fill the gap between PTB and pre-eclampsia, which continue to constitute the two most important current global challenges to maternal and perinatal health. METHODS: Pubmed, Embase, and Cochrane databases were searched from inception until December 2019 using the terms spontaneous PTB (SPTB), indicated preterm delivery (IPTD), early-onset pre-eclampsia, and pre-eclampsia. RESULTS: History of PTB and pre-eclampsia were the strongest risk factors contributing to the occurrence of SPTB or IPTB. The risk of PTB and pre-eclampsia among non-Hispanic African American women was higher than the rate among all other racial/ethnic groups in the United States. Low-dose aspirin (LDA) has been reported to reduce the risk of pre-eclampsia by at least 10% and PTB by at least 14%. Lastly, women and their fetuses who develop early-onset pre-eclampsia are at higher risk for developing hypertension and cardiovascular disease later in life. CONCLUSIONS: While better clarity is needed, efforts to coordinate prevention of both PTB and pre-eclampsia, even though imperfect, are critically important as part of any program to make motherhood as safe as possible.

Acute kidney injury associated with preeclampsia or hemolysis, elevated liver enzymes, and low platelets syndrome.

OBJECTIVE: To determine the prevalence of acute kidney injury (AKI), placental abruption and postpartum hemorrhage in patients with preeclampsia or HELLP syndrome. STUDY DESIGN: A retrospective study of patients with preeclampsia or HELLP syndrome treated at the University of Mississippi Medical Center from January 2000 through December 2010. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: Relationships among the obstetric complications of placental abruption, postpartum hemorrhage, and AKI (serum creatinine >107 µmol/L) of women with preeclampsia or HELLP syndrome. Additional analysis was undertaken to explore if there was a correlation between postpartum hemorrhage/placental abruption and the severity of HELLP syndrome according to the Mississippi classification system. RESULTS: Data from 1276 women over 11 years were included in the analysis. 67 of 466 patients (14.4%) with HELLP syndrome and 38 of 810 preeclampsia patients (4.7%) met criteria for AKI. Women with either placental abruption or postpartum hemorrhage had statistically significant increased odds of also having AKI (p < 0.01). Women with HELLP and AKI were also more likely to experience either placental abruption or postpartum hemorrhage. Women with Class 1 HELLP with placental abruption or postpartum hemorrhage were also more likely to have AKI than women with preeclampsia. CONCLUSION: HELLP syndrome, AKI and placental abruption or postpartum hemorrhage appear to be interrelated. AKI occurs more frequently in women with HELLP syndrome with or without associated postpartum hemorrhage and placental abruption.

Placental growth factor predicts time to delivery in women with signs or symptoms of early preterm preeclampsia: a prospective multicenter study.

BACKGROUND: There is a robust association between altered angiogenic factor concentrations, which includes placental growth factor and clinically recognized preeclampsia. Alterations in concentrations of angiogenic factors precede the clinical onset of preeclampsia by several weeks. The temporal relationship between the measured angiogenic factors and the time to delivery in women with suspected preeclampsia at <35 weeks gestation, however, remains to be clarified. OBJECTIVE: The purposes of this study were to examine the relationship between placental growth factor and time to delivery in women at <35 weeks gestation with signs or symptoms of preeclampsia and to compare the performance of placental growth factor to other clinical markers for prediction of time to delivery in preeclampsia. STUDY DESIGN: Women with signs or symptoms of preeclampsia between 20.0 and 35.0 weeks gestation were enrolled in a prospective, observational study at 24 centers. Blood was collected at presentation for placental growth factor, and subjects were evaluated and treated according to local protocols. Clinical outcomes were obtained, and all final diagnoses were adjudicated by an independent expert panel according to 2013 American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists' Hypertension in Pregnancy criteria. Placental growth factor was measured retrospectively on the Alere, Inc, triage platform. A normal placental growth factor was defined as >100 pg/mL; the assay's limit of detection is 12 pg/mL. Two-by-2 tables were constructed for comparison of test outcomes that included negative predictive value; time-to-delivery was analyzed by survival curves and Cox regression. RESULTS: Seven hundred fifty-three subjects were enrolled; 538 (71%) had a final diagnosis of preeclampsia; 542 (72%) delivered at <37 weeks gestation, and 358 (47%) delivered at <34 weeks gestation. Among the 279 women (37%) with a normal placental growth factor at presentation, the negative predictive value for preeclampsia delivered within 14 days or within 7 days was 90% and 93%, respectively. Compared with women with normal placental growth factor, women with placental growth factor ≤100 pg/mL have a hazard ratio of 7.17 (confidence interval, 5.08-10.13) in Cox regression for time to delivery after adjustment for both gestational age at enrollment and the final diagnosis of preeclampsia. The placental growth factor levels of normal (>100 pg/mL), low (12-100 pg/mL), and very low (<12 pg/mL) have well-separated distributions of time to delivery, with median values of 45, 10, and 2 days, respectively. Subjects with placental growth factor ≤100 pg/mL have a perinatal death rate of 5.7% and a small-for-gestational-age rate of 51.7%; subjects with placental growth factor >100 pg/mL have a perinatal death rate of 0% (no observations in this cohort) and an a small-for-gestational-age rate of 16.8%. CONCLUSION: In women with suspected preeclampsia at <35.0 weeks gestation, a low placental growth factor was correlated strongly with preterm delivery independent of a diagnosis of preeclampsia or gestational age at presentation, whereas a normal placental growth factor was associated with pregnancy prolongation, even in patients who ultimately had a final diagnosis of preeclampsia. This suggests that placental growth factor levels are superior to clinical markers in the prediction of adverse pregnancy in women with suspected preeclampsia.

Intra-incisional liposomal bupivacaine and its impact on postcesarean analgesia: a retrospective study.

PURPOSE: The efficacy of long-acting intraincisional bupivacaine in reducing postoperative opioid use among women who have undergone a cesarean is currently unknown. MATERIALS AND METHODS: This was a retrospective case-control study with a 1:1 allocation. We identified 40 patients in each group, for a total of 80. The treatment group was administered 266 mg of liposomal bupivacaine after completion of the cesarean and was compared to historical controls. Data regarding anesthesia administered, opioid consumption, nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory use, acetaminophen use, type of cesarean, reason for cesarean, and length of postoperative stay were recorded. RESULTS: The treatment group used 41.51 mg of morphine equivalents, while the control group consumed 69.90 mg (p < .001); multivariate analysis demonstrated a mean difference of 26.52 mg (95%CI 12.76-40.28). Univariate analysis demonstrated mean difference in intravenous (IV) ketorolac (40.77 mg, p < .001) and IV acetaminophen (1333.33 mg, p < .001) was different and greater in the treatment group; this was controlled for in the multivariate model. There was no difference in oral and IV ibuprofen or oral acetaminophen use between groups. There were no differences between the type of anesthesia, length of stay, reason for cesarean, and classical sections between groups. CONCLUSIONS: Incisional administration of liposomal bupivacaine may be an effective adjunct in reducing opioid use postoperatively and may be a useful adjunct within an enhanced recovery program.

National Partnership for Maternal Safety: Consensus Bundle on Severe Hypertension During Pregnancy and the Postpartum Period.

Complications arising from hypertensive disorders of pregnancy are among the leading causes of preventable severe maternal morbidity and mortality. Timely and appropriate treatment has the potential to significantly reduce hypertension-related complications. To assist health care providers in achieving this goal, this patient safety bundle provides guidance to coordinate and standardize the care provided to women with severe hypertension during pregnancy and the postpartum period. This is one of several patient safety bundles developed by multidisciplinary work groups of the National Partnership for Maternal Safety under the guidance of the Council on Patient Safety in Women's Health Care. These safety bundles outline critical clinical practices that should be implemented in every maternity care setting. Similar to other bundles that have been developed and promoted by the Partnership, the hypertension safety bundle is organized into four domains: Readiness, Recognition and Prevention, Response, and Reporting and Systems Learning. Although the bundle components may be adapted to meet the resources available in individual facilities, standardization within an institution is strongly encouraged. This commentary provides information to assist with bundle implementation.

National Partnership for Maternal Safety: Consensus Bundle on Severe Hypertension During Pregnancy and the Postpartum Period.

Complications arising from hypertensive disorders of pregnancy are among the leading causes of preventable severe maternal morbidity and mortality. Timely and appropriate treatment has the potential to significantly reduce hypertension-related complications. To assist health care providers in achieving this goal, this patient safety bundle provides guidance to coordinate and standardize the care provided to women with severe hypertension during pregnancy and the postpartum period. This is one of several patient safety bundles developed by multidisciplinary work groups of the National Partnership for Maternal Safety under the guidance of the Council on Patient Safety in Women's Health Care. These safety bundles outline critical clinical practices that should be implemented in every maternity care setting. Similar to other bundles that have been developed and promoted by the Partnership, the hypertension safety bundle is organized into four domains: Readiness, Recognition and Prevention, Response, and Reporting and Systems Learning. Although the bundle components may be adapted to meet the resources available in individual facilities, standardization within an institution is strongly encouraged. This commentary provides information to assist with bundle implementation.

Consensus Bundle on Severe Hypertension During Pregnancy and the Postpartum Period.

Complications arising from hypertensive disorders of pregnancy are among the leading causes of preventable severe maternal morbidity and mortality. Timely and appropriate treatment has the potential to significantly reduce hypertension-related complications. To assist health care providers in achieving this goal, this patient safety bundle provides guidance to coordinate and standardize the care provided to women with severe hypertension during pregnancy and the postpartum period. This is one of several patient safety bundles developed by multidisciplinary work groups of the National Partnership for Maternal Safety under the guidance of the Council on Patient Safety in Women's Health Care. These safety bundles outline critical clinical practices that should be implemented in every maternity care setting. Similar to other bundles that have been developed and promoted by the Partnership, the hypertension safety bundle is organized into four domains: Readiness, Recognition and Prevention, Response, and Reporting and Systems Learning. Although the bundle components may be adapted to meet the resources available in individual facilities, standardization within an institution is strongly encouraged. This commentary provides information to assist with bundle implementation.

Consensus Bundle on Severe Hypertension During Pregnancy and the Postpartum Period.

Complications arising from hypertensive disorders of pregnancy are among the leading causes of preventable severe maternal morbidity and mortality. Timely and appropriate treatment has the potential to significantly reduce hypertension-related complications. To assist health care providers in achieving this goal, this patient safety bundle provides guidance to coordinate and standardize the care provided to women with severe hypertension during pregnancy and the postpartum period. This is one of several patient safety bundles developed by multidisciplinary work groups of the National Partnership for Maternal Safety under the guidance of the Council on Patient Safety in Women's Health Care. These safety bundles outline critical clinical practices that should be implemented in every maternity care setting. Similar to other bundles that have been developed and promoted by the Partnership, the hypertension safety bundle is organized into four domains: Readiness, Recognition and Prevention, Response, and Reporting and Systems Learning. Although the bundle components may be adapted to meet the resources available in individual facilities, standardization within an institution is strongly encouraged. This commentary provides information to assist with bundle implementation.

In Pursuit of Progress Toward Effective Preterm Birth Reduction.

Recently the March of Dimes and the International Federation of Gynecology and Obstetrics Working Group on Preterm Birth released its findings from an extensive cross-country individual patient data analysis of 4.1 million singleton births in five high-income, very high human development index countries. The specific contributions of 21 risk factors for both spontaneous and health care provider-initiated preterm birth were assessed to better understand how these vary among the countries selected for intensive study. We also wished to evaluate whether currently used clinical interventions to prevent preterm birth are associated with lower rates of preterm delivery. Individual and population-attributable preterm birth risks were determined and an assessment made to identify any contribution to cross-country differences. With this massive data set it was possible to assess the ability to predict preterm birth given various sets of known risk factors. It was also possible to estimate the potential effects of successful interventions to reduce preterm birth in relation to advances in the research, health care policy, and clinical practice sectors. In this article we summarize the seven most important findings from these analyses. Clearly there is a paucity of explicit and currently identifiable factors that are amenable to intervention with current clinical practice or changes in public health policy. Thus, we see an urgent and critically important need for research efforts to elucidate the underlying biological causes of spontaneous preterm birth. The need for new innovative and effective interventions to successfully pursue progress toward effective preterm birth reduction has never been more apparent.

Management of Hypertensive Crisis for the Obstetrician/Gynecologist.

Hypertensive disorders of pregnancy are among the leading preventable contributors of maternal and fetal adverse outcomes, including maternal and fetal death. Blood pressure increase has a strong association with unfavorable pregnancy outcomes, including stroke and pulmonary edema. A persistent blood pressure measurement greater than or equal to 160/110 mm Hg lasting for more than 15 minutes, during pregnancy or postpartum, is considered an obstetric emergency and requires rapid appropriate treatment. Following evidence-based guidelines, implementing institutional polices, and understanding the classification and pathophysiology of hypertensive disorders of pregnancy are essential and can significantly improve the rate of preventable complications.

Anesthetic practices for patients with preeclampsia or HELLP syndrome: A survey.

OBJECTIVE: Substantial controversy exists regarding anesthetic management for patients with preeclampsia or hemolysis, elevated liver enzymes, low platelet count (HELLP) syndrome. Experts, researchers, clinicians, and residents in Turkey were surveyed about their practices. MATERIAL AND METHODS: Questionnaires were distributed to attendees at a national conference, and they were filled out immediately. Anonymous 10-item paper surveys were administered to both residents and non-residents. Descriptive statistics were used in the analysis. Agreement among ≥75% of the respondents was considered a majority opinion. Surveys with missing responses were used to analyze the non-response bias. The Chi-square test was used for comparisons. A historical cohort of obstetricians-gynecologists was used for comparison with anesthesiologists. RESULTS: Of 339 surveys distributed, 288 were returned (84.9% response rate). Among the returned surveys, the completion rate was 96.1%. The job experience in years among clinicians and residents was 9±5 and 3±1, respectively. General anesthesia was still significantly preferred by 36.1% among patients with preeclampsia with platelet counts of ≥100,000/µL. Compared to obstetricians-gynecologists, anesthesiologists more often preferred general anesthesia. With platelet counts of <50,000/µL or eclampsia, most respondents preferred general anesthesia 94.4% for very low platelets and 89.5% for eclampsia. CONCLUSION: A preferential trend toward general anesthesia for patients with preeclampsia or HELLP syndrome exists among anesthesiologists in Turkey, particularly for patients with severe thrombocytopenia and/or eclampsia. There exists a need for well-designed and well-executed prospective clinical trials to provide evidence for the best consensus practice.

Cross-Country Individual Participant Analysis of 4.1 Million Singleton Births in 5 Countries with Very High Human Development Index Confirms Known Associations but Provides No Biologic Explanation for 2/3 of All Preterm Births.

BACKGROUND: Preterm birth is the most common single cause of perinatal and infant mortality, affecting 15 million infants worldwide each year with global rates increasing. Understanding of risk factors remains poor, and preventive interventions have only limited benefit. Large differences exist in preterm birth rates across high income countries. We hypothesized that understanding the basis for these wide variations could lead to interventions that reduce preterm birth incidence in countries with high rates. We thus sought to assess the contributions of known risk factors for both spontaneous and provider-initiated preterm birth in selected high income countries, estimating also the potential impact of successful interventions due to advances in research, policy and public health, or clinical practice. METHODS: We analyzed individual patient-level data on 4.1 million singleton pregnancies from four countries with very high human development index (Czech Republic, New Zealand, Slovenia, Sweden) and one comparator U.S. state (California) to determine the specific contribution (adjusting for confounding effects) of 21 factors. Both individual and population-attributable preterm birth risks were determined, as were contributors to cross-country differences. We also assessed the ability to predict preterm birth given various sets of known risk factors. FINDINGS: Previous preterm birth and preeclampsia were the strongest individual risk factors of preterm birth in all datasets, with odds ratios of 4.6-6.0 and 2.8-5.7, respectively, for individual women having those characteristics. In contrast, on a population basis, nulliparity and male sex were the two risk factors with the highest impact on preterm birth rates, accounting for 25-50% and 11-16% of excess population attributable risk, respectively (p<0.001). The importance of nulliparity and male sex on population attributable risk was driven by high prevalence despite low odds ratios for individual women. More than 65% of the total aggregated risk of preterm birth within each country lacks a plausible biologic explanation, and 63% of difference between countries cannot be explained with known factors; thus, research is necessary to elucidate the underlying mechanisms of preterm birth and, hence, therapeutic intervention. Surprisingly, variation in prevalence of known risk factors accounted for less than 35% of the difference in preterm birth rates between countries. Known risk factors had an area under the curve of less than 0.7 in ROC analysis of preterm birth prediction within countries. These data suggest that other influences, as yet unidentified, are involved in preterm birth. Further research into biological mechanisms is warranted. CONCLUSIONS: We have quantified the causes of variation in preterm birth rates among countries with very high human development index. The paucity of explicit and currently identified factors amenable to intervention illustrates the limited impact of changes possible through current clinical practice and policy interventions. Our research highlights the urgent need for research into underlying biological causes of preterm birth, which alone are likely to lead to innovative and efficacious interventions.

Effect of chorionic villus sampling on the occurrence of preeclampsia and gestational hypertension: An updated systematic review and meta-analysis.

OBJECTIVE: To perform a meta-analysis for an assessment of the risk of preeclampsia or gestational hypertension following chorionic villus sampling (CVS). DATA SOURCE: PubMed was systematically searched from its inception through January 2016. MATERIAL AND METHODS: Nine reports were identified. A pre-specified scale was used to assess their quality. TABULATION INTEGRATION AND RESULTS: We performed pooling into three subgroups with respect to the control group: A) Patients with no invasive prenatal diagnostic procedure served as a control group for comparison. The odds ratios for gestational hypertension (0.76, 95% CI 0.46-1.26), preeclampsia (0.83, 95% CI 0.42-1.67), and severe preeclampsia (0.49, 95% CI 0.04-5.78) or when hypertension categories were pooled (0.80, 95% CI 0.46-1.41) were not significantly different. B) Patients with midtrimester diagnostic amniocentesis and patients with no invasive prenatal diagnostic procedure were combined as a control group for comparison. The odds ratios for preeclampsia (1, 95% CI 0.46-2.18), severe preeclampsia (0.83, 95% CI 0.14-4.85), and pooled hypertension categories (1.07, 95% CI 0.63-1.84) were not significantly different. C) Patients with midtrimester diagnostic amniocentesis served as a control group. There was a significant difference in the odds ratio for preeclampsia between the CVS and amniocentesis groups (2.47, 95% CI 1.14-5.33). There was a marginal difference in the odds ratio for combined pregnancy-induced hypertension categories between the CVS and amniocentesis groups (1.61, 95% CI 1.02-2.53). CONCLUSION: The available data do not indicate an increased risk of preeclampsia or gestational hypertension following first trimester CVS. The heterogeneity and retrospective design of existing studies are limiting factors for our analysis and findings.

Severe systolic hypertension and the search for safer motherhood.

Timely and appropriate response to severe hypertension during gestation is an important component of quality, safe care for pregnant or puerperal mothers regardless of causation. The reduction of severe maternal morbidity and maternal mortality in the hypertensive mother is clearly enhanced by the addition of standard protocols for provider response to severe hypertension, particularly severe systolic hypertension. The program developed in New York State via the Safe Motherhood Initiative promotes the implementation of unit-specific safety bundles, especially one that is focused upon a standardized approach to handling the obstetric emergency of severe hypertension usually associated with preeclampsia/eclampsia. The comprehensive preeclampsia/eclampsia safety bundle as summarized by Drs. Moroz and colleagues is reviewed especially from the perspective of its focus on the timely and specific responses for health care providers to make when severe hypertension is detected in the pregnant patient. Evidence-based guidance to practice considerations and clinical care of patients with preeclampsia/eclampsia is embedded within the program outlined for New York State by Moroz and her District II ACOG colleagues. There is a central focus on timely and appropriate antepartum/postpartum management of severe hypertension, a core concept to lessen maternal risk for cerebral hemorrhage. Ten considerations for further integration into the New York program are suggested. Beyond blood pressure control, there is a need for systematic review of interventions and outcomes over time, attention to possible future variations of the protocol for racial/ethnic patient groups at highest risk for maternal morbidity and mortality, and the identification of biomarker(s) that further specify and quantify risk to the maternal brain and other organ systems when severe hypertension develops. Safer motherhood will happen when evidence for best practice is integrated into systems of care for all patients.

Impedance cardiography assessed treatment of acute severe pregnancy hypertension: a randomized trial.

OBJECTIVE: Using noninvasive bedside impedance cardiography (ICG), we compared the effectiveness and the hemodynamic impact of intravenous labetalol versus hydralazine for the reduction of acute-onset severe hypertension to ACOG-recommended blood pressure levels (ACOG Committee Opinion 514). STUDY DESIGN: In this prospective randomized pilot study of acutely severe systolic hypertension (≥160 mmHg), pregnant women received either labetalol (L) or hydralazine (H) intravenously and underwent thoracic ICG before and after treatment. Data analysis were performed using STATA software (StataCorp LP, College Station, TX); data are expressed as mean ± SD. RESULTS: About 29 patients completed the study. There was no significant difference in mean arterial pressure (MAP) between groups [H = 119.4 mmHg, L = 117.7 mmHg, mean difference (MD) = 1.73); the estimated MD between baseline and follow-up ICG was -9.17 (p = 0.001, 95% CI: -14.39 to -3.95). There were no significant differences in total peripheral resistance (TPR) between groups (H = 1771.3, L = 1976.97, MD = 205.62) or cardiac output (CO) between groups (H = 5.7, L = 5.1, MD = 0.64) or a significant MD between these at baseline and follow-up. CONCLUSION: Both drugs performed similarly to achieve ACOG-recommended initial blood pressure reduction safely without side effects or excessive acute hemodynamic profile correction toward normal pregnancy values.

Burns During Pregnancy: Implications for Maternal-Perinatal Providers and Guidelines for Practice.

IMPORTANCE: When a major burn is suffered during pregnancy, the obstetric provider is challenged to respond on an evidence basis because personal experience usually is lacking. Currently, there is a paucity of publications to inform the obstetrician, guide practice, and impact early critical decision making. OBJECTIVE: The aims of this study were to summarize the available information on early management of burns during pregnancy and to identify components of best practices for optimal outcome. EVIDENCE ACQUISITION: The PubMed database was searched for relevant titles and abstracts involving pregnant patients suffering from second-/third-degree burns. Among these studies, the bibliographies were investigated for further relevant literature. A total of 114 studies were identified during the initial search, and only studies published in English and French were included for a total of 42. Variable data were available for 1141 patients, with complete data for 139 cases. Mediation and regression analysis were used for available data. Insufficient data were available to undertake a systematic review. RESULTS: Total body surface area of burns (TBSAB) was positively associated with maternal death, and the odds of maternal mortality increase by 1.08 per percentage increase of TBSAB (P < 0.001). Fetal survival depends on maternal survival (P ≤ 0.001). Maternal survival declines incrementally when TBSAB exceeds 55%, and inhalation injury further exacerbates maternal-perinatal risk. CONCLUSIONS: Emergent assessment of the pregnant burn victimincludes determination of gestational age, extent of TBSAB, presence of inhalation injury, and continuous fetal monitoring. If gestational age is 24 weeks or longer and TBSAB exceeds 55%, urgent cesarean delivery appears desirable for the mother and baby. RELEVANCE: A specific analysis of maternal-perinatal outcome based on TBSAB and gestational age is relevant to obstetric and emergency providers who provide care to pregnant burn patients.

International Federation of Gynecology and Obstetrics opinion on reproductive health impacts of exposure to toxic environmental chemicals.

Exposure to toxic environmental chemicals during pregnancy and breastfeeding is ubiquitous and is a threat to healthy human reproduction. There are tens of thousands of chemicals in global commerce, and even small exposures to toxic chemicals during pregnancy can trigger adverse health consequences. Exposure to toxic environmental chemicals and related health outcomes are inequitably distributed within and between countries; universally, the consequences of exposure are disproportionately borne by people with low incomes. Discrimination, other social factors, economic factors, and occupation impact risk of exposure and harm. Documented links between prenatal exposure to environmental chemicals and adverse health outcomes span the life course and include impacts on fertility and pregnancy, neurodevelopment, and cancer. The global health and economic burden related to toxic environmental chemicals is in excess of millions of deaths and billions of dollars every year. On the basis of accumulating robust evidence of exposures and adverse health impacts related to toxic environmental chemicals, the International Federation of Gynecology and Obstetrics (FIGO) joins other leading reproductive health professional societies in calling for timely action to prevent harm. FIGO recommends that reproductive and other health professionals advocate for policies to prevent exposure to toxic environmental chemicals, work to ensure a healthy food system for all, make environmental health part of health care, and champion environmental justice.