Soil microbial communities are sensitive to differences in fertilization intensity in organic and conventional farming systems.

Intensive agriculture has increased global food production, but also impaired ecosystem services and soil biodiversity. Organic fertilization, essential to organic and integrated farming, can provide numerous benefits for soil quality but also compromise the environment by polluting soils and producing greenhouse gases through animal husbandry. The need for reduced stocking density is inevitably accompanied by lower FYM inputs, but little research is available on the impact of these effects on the soil microbiome. We collected soil samples from winter wheat plots of a 42-year-old long-term trial comparing different farming systems receiving farmyard manure at two intensities and measured soil quality parameters and microbial community diversity through DNA metabarcoding. High-input fertilization, corresponding to 1.4 livestock units (LU) improved the soil's nutritional status and increased soil microbial biomass and respiration when compared to low-input at 0.7 LU. Bacterial and fungal α-diversity was largely unaffected by fertilization intensity, whereas their community structure changed consistently, accompanied by an increase in the bacterial copiotroph-to-oligotroph ratio in high-input systems and by more copiotrophic indicator OTUs associated with high than low-input. This study shows that reduced nutrient availability under low-input selects oligotrophic microbes efficiently obtaining nutrients from various carbon sources; a potentially beneficial trait considering future agroecosystems.

Coordination processes in partnerships between German governmental organizations and German sports federations in jointly implemented SDP projects.

Sports and physical activity are increasingly used as instruments of development policy. Within this field of sport for development and peace (SDP), one can observe a large number of partnerships between national governmental organizations and national sport federations. These are particularly important although these organizations pursue different core objectives with their SDP engagement. The aim of this qualitative study is to analyze how German governmental organizations and sports federations coordinate jointly managed SDP projects. Against the backdrop of systems theory, we conducted interviews with participants from relevant organizations. The qualitative content analysis revealed that inter-organizational coordination takes place partly in hierarchical and partly in network-based structures. The results show complex patterns between the participating organizations which gain varying degrees of influence on the SDP projects and seek to get specific resources through the cooperations. These should be taken into consideration when designing SDP projects to build stable cooperations that bring all the participating organizations an added value.

Maize Field Study Reveals Covaried Microbiota and Metabolic Changes in Roots over Plant Growth.

Plant roots are colonized by microorganisms from the surrounding soil that belong to different kingdoms and form a multikingdom microbial community called the root microbiota. Despite their importance for plant growth, the relationship between soil management, the root microbiota, and plant performance remains unknown. Here, we characterize the maize root-associated bacterial, fungal, and oomycetal communities during the vegetative and reproductive growth stages of four maize inbred lines and the pht1;6 phosphate transporter mutant. These plants were grown in two long-term experimental fields under four contrasting soil managements, including phosphate-deficient and -sufficient conditions. We showed that the maize root-associated microbiota is influenced by soil management and changes during host growth stages. We identified stable bacterial and fungal root-associated taxa that persist throughout the host life cycle. These taxa were accompanied by dynamic members that covary with changes in root metabolites. We observed an inverse stable-to-dynamic ratio between root-associated bacterial and fungal communities. We also found a host footprint on the soil biota, characterized by a convergence between soil, rhizosphere, and root bacterial communities during reproductive maize growth. Our study reveals the spatiotemporal dynamics of the maize root-associated microbiota and suggests that the fungal assemblage is less responsive to changes in root metabolites than the bacterial community. IMPORTANCE Plant roots are inhabited by microbial communities called the root microbiota, which supports plant growth and health. We show in a maize field study that the root microbiota consists of stable and dynamic members. The dynamics of the microbial community appear to be driven by changes in the metabolic state of the roots over the life cycle of maize.

Crop genetic diversity uncovers metabolites, elements, and gene networks predicted to be associated with high plant biomass yields in maize.

Rapid population growth and increasing demand for food, feed, and bioenergy in these times of unprecedented climate change require breeding for increased biomass production on the world's croplands. To accelerate breeding programs, knowledge of the relationship between biomass features and underlying gene networks is needed to guide future breeding efforts. To this end, large-scale multiomics datasets were created with genetically diverse maize lines, all grown in long-term organic and conventional cropping systems. Analysis of the datasets, integrated using regression modeling and network analysis revealed key metabolites, elements, gene transcripts, and gene networks, whose contents during vegetative growth substantially influence the build-up of plant biomass in the reproductive phase. We found that S and P content in the source leaf and P content in the root during the vegetative stage contributed the most to predicting plant performance at the reproductive stage. In agreement with the Gene Ontology enrichment analysis, the cis-motifs and identified transcription factors associated with upregulated genes under phosphate deficiency showed great diversity in the molecular response to phosphate deficiency in selected lines. Furthermore, our data demonstrate that genotype-dependent uptake, assimilation, and allocation of essential nutrient elements (especially C and N) during vegetative growth under phosphate starvation plays an important role in determining plant biomass by controlling root traits related to nutrient uptake. These integrative multiomics results revealed key factors underlying maize productivity and open new opportunities for efficient, rapid, and cost-effective plant breeding to increase biomass yield of the cereal crop maize under adverse environmental factors.

Tracing the fate of phosphorus fertilizer derived cadmium in soil-fertilizer-wheat systems using enriched stable isotope labeling.

Applying mineral phosphorus (P) fertilizers introduces a considerable input of the toxic heavy metal cadmium (Cd) into arable soils. This study investigates the fate of P fertilizer derived Cd (Cddff) in soil-wheat systems using a novel combination of enriched stable Cd isotope mass balances, sequential extractions, and Bayesian isotope mixing models. We applied an enriched 111Cd labeled mineral P fertilizer to arable soils from two long-term field trials with distinct soil properties (a strongly acidic pH and a neutral pH) and distinct past mineral P fertilizer application rates. We then cultivated wheat in a pot trial on these two soils. In the neutral soil, Cd concentrations in the soil and the wheat increased with increasing past mineral P fertilizer application rates. This was not the case in the strongly acidic soil. Less than 2.3% of freshly applied Cddff was taken up by the whole wheat plant. Most of the Cddff remained in the soil and was predominantly (>95% of freshly applied Cddff) partitioned into the easily mobilizable acetic acid soluble fraction (F1) and the potentially mobile reducible fraction (F2). Soil pH was the determining factor for the partitioning of Cddff into F1, as revealed through a recovery of about 40% of freshly applied Cddff in F1 in the neutral pH soil compared with about 60% in the strongly acidic soil. Isotope mixing models showed that F1 was the predominant source of Cd for wheat on both soils and that it contributed to over 80% of the Cd that was taken up by wheat. By tracing the fate of Cddff in entire soil-plant systems using different isotope source tracing approaches, we show that the majority of Cddff remains mobilizable and is potentially plant available in the subsequent crop cycle.

Enhanced root carbon allocation through organic farming is restricted to topsoils.

Soils store significant amounts of carbon (C) and thus can play a critical role for mitigating climate change. Crop roots represent the main C source in agricultural soils and are particularly important for long-term C storage in agroecosystems. To evaluate the potential of different farming systems to contribute to soil C sequestration and thus climate change mitigation, it is of great importance to gain a better understanding of the factors influencing root C allocation and distribution. So far, it is still unclear how root C allocation varies among farming systems and whether the choice of management practices can help to enhance root C inputs. In this study, we compared root C allocation in three main arable farming systems, namely organic, no-till, and conventional farming. We assessed root biomass, vertical root distribution to 0.75 m soil depth, and root-shoot ratios in 24 winter wheat fields. We further evaluated the relative importance of the farming system compared to site conditions and quantified the contribution of individual management practices and pedoclimatic drivers. Farming system explained one third of the variation in topsoil root biomass and root-shoot ratios, both being strongly positively related to weed biomass and soil organic C content and negatively to mineral nitrogen fertilization intensity. Root C allocation was significantly higher in organic farming as illustrated by an increase in root biomass (+40%) and root-shoot ratios (+60%) compared to conventional farming. By contrast, the overall impact of no-till was low. The importance of pedoclimatic conditions increased substantially with soil depth and deep root biomass was largely controlled by precipitation and soil texture, while the impact of management was close to zero. Our findings highlight the potential of organic farming in promoting root C inputs to topsoils and thereby contributing to soil organic matter build-up and improved soil quality in agroecosystems.

Return-To-Play Decision Making in Team Sports Athletes. A Quasi-Naturalistic Scenario Study.

Competitive athletes act within cultures of risk in sports and often decide to return to sport despite having acute health problems. The outcomes of such risky return-to-play decisions can not only negatively affect their future health, but may also limit their sports performance or even upset their career paths. Following risk-management-decision theory with its focus on active risk defusing, we developed a model for understanding the process of return-to-play decision making from an athlete's perspective. Based on the method of active information search, a quasi-naturalistic return-to-play decision scenario was created in order to assess amateur team sport athletes' decision-making strategies. The main goals were to identify different information acquisition patterns and to analyze the influence of varying sporting consequences on decision making. A total of 72 competitive team sport athletes (36 females, 36 males, m = 25.7 years of age, 3rd to 6th league level) from three disciplines (volleyball, basketball, and handball) participated in the experimental study. Facing the same medical scenario (a partial tear of the supraspinatus tendon), athletes show different approaches to return-to-play decision making. The main focus is on the potential sporting consequences of withdrawal from competition due to injury, with only a few players favoring well-informed decisions based on thorough risk analysis. The athletes who chose the medically risky alternative to play hurt mostly employed strategies of active risk defusing, which got activated when severe sporting consequences were perceived. Those who chose to withdraw from competition primarily referred to maximin heuristic, particularly when social pressure to play was reduced. The findings can be used to improve rehabilitation-related communication and shared return-to-play decision making in sports.

Long-term modelling of crop yield, nitrogen losses and GHG balance in organic cropping systems.

Although organic cropping systems are promoted for their environmental benefits, little is known about their long-term impact on nitrogen (N) fate in the soil-plant-atmosphere system. In this paper, we analyze two long-term experiments: DOK in Switzerland (39-yr) and Foulum organic in Denmark (19-yr). Four treatments were considered in each experiment: two conventional treatments with (CONFYM) or without manure (CONMIN), organic with manure (BIOORG) and unfertilized treatment (NOFERT) at DOK; conventional (CGL-CC+IF) and three organic treatments, one with cover crops only (OGL+CC-M) and two including cover crops and grass-clover with (OGC+CC+M) or without manure (OGC+CC-M), at Foulum. STICS model was used to simulate crop production, N surplus, nitrate leaching, gaseous N losses and changes in soil organic N. It was calibrated in the conventional treatments and tested in organic systems. The crop production, N surplus and soil organic N stocks were satisfactorily predicted. The mean N surplus greatly differed between treatments at DOK, from -58 (NOFERT) to +21 kg N ha-1 yr-1 (CONFYM), but only from -9 (OGL+CC-M) to +21 kg N ha-1 yr-1 (OGC+CC+M) in Foulum. Soil N pools declined continuously in both sites and treatments at a rate varying from -18 to -78 kg N ha-1 yr-1, depending on fertilization and crop rotation. The decline was consistent with the observed N surpluses. Although not all simulations could be tested against field observations and despite of prediction uncertainties, simulations confirm the hypothesis that environmental performances resulting from C and N cycles depend more on specificities of individual than nominal treatments. Significant correlations appeared between long-term N surplus and soil N storage and between total N fertilization and total N gaseous losses. Results showed in both experiments that arable organic systems do not systematically have lower N surplus and N losses than conventional ones, providing opportunity for increasing N use efficiency of these systems.

Long-term organic matter application reduces cadmium but not zinc concentrations in wheat.

Wheat is a staple food crop and a major source of both the essential micronutrient zinc (Zn) and the toxic heavy metal cadmium (Cd) for humans. Since Zn and Cd are chemically similar, increasing Zn concentrations in wheat grains (biofortification), while preventing Cd accumulation, is an agronomic challenge. We used two Swiss agricultural long-term field trials, the "Dynamic-Organic-Conventional System Comparison Trial" (DOK) and the "Zurich Organic Fertilization Experiment" (ZOFE), to investigate the impact of long-term organic, mineral and combined fertilizer inputs on total and phytoavailable concentrations of soil Zn and Cd and their accumulation in winter wheat (Triticum aestivum L.). "Diffusive gradients in thin films" (DGT) and diethylene-triamine-pentaacetic acid (DTPA) extraction were used as proxies for plant available soil metals. Compared to unfertilized controls, long-term organic fertilization with composted manure or green waste compost led to higher soil organic carbon, cation exchange capacity and pH, while DGT-available Zn and Cd concentrations were reduced. The DGT method was a strong predictor of shoot and grain Cd, but not Zn concentrations. Shoot and grain Zn concentrations correlated with DTPA-extractable and total soil Zn concentrations in the ZOFE, but not the DOK trial. Long-term compost fertilization led to lower accumulation of Cd in wheat grains, but did not affect grain Zn. Therefore, Zn/Cd ratios in the grains increased. High Zn and Cd inputs with organic fertilizers and high Cd inputs with phosphate fertilizers led to positive Zn and Cd mass balances when taking into account atmospheric deposition and fertilizer inputs. On the other hand, mineral fertilization led to the depletion of soil Zn due to higher yields and thus higher Zn exports than under organic management. The study supports the use of organic fertilizers for reducing Cd concentrations of wheat grains in the long-term, given that the quality of the fertilizers is guaranteed.

The impact of long-term organic farming on soil-derived greenhouse gas emissions.

Agricultural practices contribute considerably to emissions of greenhouse gases. So far, knowledge on the impact of organic compared to non-organic farming on soil-derived nitrous oxide (N2O) and methane (CH4) emissions is limited. We investigated N2O and CH4 fluxes with manual chambers during 571 days in a grass-clover- silage maize - green manure cropping sequence in the long-term field trial "DOK" in Switzerland. We compared two organic farming systems - biodynamic (BIODYN) and bioorganic (BIOORG) - with two non-organic systems - solely mineral fertilisation (CONMIN) and mixed farming including farmyard manure (CONFYM) - all reflecting Swiss farming practices-together with an unfertilised control (NOFERT). We observed a 40.2% reduction of N2O emissions per hectare for organic compared to non-organic systems. In contrast to current knowledge, yield-scaled cumulated N2O emissions under silage maize were similar between organic and non-organic systems. Cumulated on area scale we recorded under silage maize a modest CH4 uptake for BIODYN and CONMIN and high CH4 emissions for CONFYM. We found that, in addition to N input, quality properties such as pH, soil organic carbon and microbial biomass significantly affected N2O emissions. This study showed that organic farming systems can be a viable measure contributing to greenhouse gas mitigation in the agricultural sector.

Green manure and long-term fertilization effects on soil zinc and cadmium availability and uptake by wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) at different growth stages.

Zinc (Zn) deficiency in human populations depending on cereals as a main source of Zn is a global malnutrition problem. In this field study, we investigated the potential of green manure application to increase soil Zn availability and wheat grain Zn concentrations (biofortification) on a Luvisol with different long-term fertilizer management. We also studied cadmium (Cd), as wheat is a major contributor of this undesired non-essential element to human diets. Clover (Trifolium alexandrinum L.), mustard (Sinapis alba L.) or no green manure was grown on field plots which had been managed with farmyard manure or mineral fertilizers for 65years in Switzerland. After green manure incorporation into the soil, spring wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) was grown on all plots. The "diffusive gradients in thin films" (DGT) method and DTPA extraction were used to compare soil Zn and Cd availability among the treatments. In contrast to mustard, clover increased soil mineral nitrogen concentrations and wheat biomass; however, neither increased grain Zn concentrations. DGT-available Zn and Cd increased temporarily after both farmyard manure and mineral nitrogen fertilizer application. Higher DTPA-extractable soil Zn and Cd, lower wheat grain yields, but higher grain Zn concentrations were obtained with farmyard manure compared to mineral fertilizers, independent of the green manure treatment. Farmyard manure added Zn, Cd and organic matter that increased the soil binding capacity for Zn and Cd. The decomposition of clover residues caused higher wheat grain yields, but only marginally lower grain Zn concentrations. The absence of a stronger dilution of grain Zn was probably due to organic acid and nitrogen release from decomposing clover, which facilitated Zn uptake by wheat. The study revealed that both long- and short-term field management with organic matter alters soil Zn and Cd concentrations but that the long-term effects dominate their uptake by wheat, in Zn sufficient soil.

Overestimation of Crop Root Biomass in Field Experiments Due to Extraneous Organic Matter.

Root biomass is one of the most relevant root parameters for studies of plant response to environmental change, soil carbon modeling or estimations of soil carbon sequestration. A major source of error in root biomass quantification of agricultural crops in the field is the presence of extraneous organic matter in soil: dead roots from previous crops, weed roots, incorporated above ground plant residues and organic soil amendments, or remnants of soil fauna. Using the isotopic difference between recent maize root biomass and predominantly C3-derived extraneous organic matter, we determined the proportions of maize root biomass carbon of total carbon in root samples from the Swiss long-term field trial "DOK." We additionally evaluated the effects of agricultural management (bio-organic and conventional), sampling depth (0-0.25, 0.25-0.5, 0.5-0.75 m) and position (within and between maize rows), and root size class (coarse and fine roots) as defined by sieve mesh size (2 and 0.5 mm) on those proportions, and quantified the success rate of manual exclusion of extraneous organic matter from root samples. Only 60% of the root mass that we retrieved from field soil cores was actual maize root biomass from the current season. While the proportions of maize root biomass carbon were not affected by agricultural management, they increased consistently with soil depth, were higher within than between maize rows, and were higher in coarse (>2 mm) than in fine (≤2 and >0.5) root samples. The success rate of manual exclusion of extraneous organic matter from root samples was related to agricultural management and, at best, about 60%. We assume that the composition of extraneous organic matter is strongly influenced by agricultural management and soil depth and governs the effect size of the investigated factors. Extraneous organic matter may result in severe overestimation of recovered root biomass and has, therefore, large implications for soil carbon modeling and estimations of the climate change mitigation potential of soils.

Eating disorder pathology in elite adolescent athletes.

OBJECTIVE: We aimed to investigate eating disorder pathology in German elite adolescent athletes. Evidence suggests that eating disorder pathology is more common in adult elite sports, especially in female athletes and in sports emphasizing leanness. There is a scarcity of studies in elite adolescent athletes who are in a vulnerable developmental stage and are affected by general as well as sport-specific risk factors. METHOD: Our data was derived from the German Young Olympic Athletes' Lifestyle and Health Management Study (GOAL) which conducted a survey in 1138 elite adolescent athletes. In this sample, we assessed body weight, weight control behavior, body acceptance and screened overall for core symptoms of eating disorders, depression and anxiety. We performed a tree analysis to identify high risk groups for eating disorder pathology. RESULTS: High risk groups comprised (a) athletes competing in weight dependent sports, and among athletes competing in disciplines other than weight dependent sports (b) athletes who are high on negative affectivity, (c) female athletes and (d) male athletes competing in endurance, technical or power sports. Athletes competing in weight dependent disciplines reported wide spread use of compensatory behaviors to influence body weight. Athletes reporting eating disorder pathology showed higher levels of depression and anxiety than athletes without eating disorder pathology. DISCUSSION: Increased psychosocial burden in athletes with eating disorder pathology suggests that eating disorder symptoms should not be accepted as an unproblematic and functional part of elite sports. The prevention and management of eating disorder pathology is especially important in weight dependent sports. © 2016 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. (Int J Eat Disord 2016; 49:553-562).

Elevated ozone and nitrogen deposition affect nitrogen pools of subalpine grassland.

In a free-air fumigation experiment with subalpine grassland, we studied long-term effects of elevated ozone (O3) and nitrogen (N) deposition on ecosystem N pools and on the fate of anthropogenic N. At three times during the seventh year of exposure, N pools and recovery of a stable isotope tracer ((15)N) were determined in above- and belowground plant parts, and in the soil. Plants were much better competitors for (15)N than soil microorganisms. Plant N pools increased by 30-40% after N addition, while soil pools remained unaffected, suggesting that most of the extra N was taken up and stored in plant biomass, thus preventing the ecosystem from acquiring characteristics of eutrophication. Elevated O3 caused an increase of N in microbial biomass and in stabilized soil N, probably resulting from increased litter input and lower litter quality. Different from individual effects, the interaction between the pollutants remained partly unexplained.

Distinct soil microbial diversity under long-term organic and conventional farming.

Low-input agricultural systems aim at reducing the use of synthetic fertilizers and pesticides in order to improve sustainable production and ecosystem health. Despite the integral role of the soil microbiome in agricultural production, we still have a limited understanding of the complex response of microbial diversity to organic and conventional farming. Here we report on the structural response of the soil microbiome to more than two decades of different agricultural management in a long-term field experiment using a high-throughput pyrosequencing approach of bacterial and fungal ribosomal markers. Organic farming increased richness, decreased evenness, reduced dispersion and shifted the structure of the soil microbiota when compared with conventionally managed soils under exclusively mineral fertilization. This effect was largely attributed to the use and quality of organic fertilizers, as differences became smaller when conventionally managed soils under an integrated fertilization scheme were examined. The impact of the plant protection regime, characterized by moderate and targeted application of pesticides, was of subordinate importance. Systems not receiving manure harboured a dispersed and functionally versatile community characterized by presumably oligotrophic organisms adapted to nutrient-limited environments. Systems receiving organic fertilizer were characterized by specific microbial guilds known to be involved in degradation of complex organic compounds such as manure and compost. The throughput and resolution of the sequencing approach permitted to detect specific structural shifts at the level of individual microbial taxa that harbours a novel potential for managing the soil environment by means of promoting beneficial and suppressing detrimental organisms.

Health in elite sports from a salutogenetic perspective: athletes' sense of coherence.

OBJECTIVE: Considering the high number of stressors encountered in the context of elite sports, a high sense of coherence (SOC) is crucial to allow athletes to maintain their health from both short- and long-term perspectives. The aim of this cross-sectional study was to investigate SOC in a population of elite athletes, focusing on identification of subsets of athletes with particularly high and low SOC scores, and any related predictors. The elite athletes' SOC scores were also evaluated for differences with those of the general population of Germany; whether a correlation between SOC and subjective health existed was additionally examined. METHOD: In total, 698 male and female elite athletes, drawn from Germany's highest-level national track and field squads, and first and second division handball teams, completed a survey that included the SOC-L9 Scale and measures of subjective health, sociodemographic information, and the number of injury lay-offs experienced during the athletes' careers to date. RESULTS: Classification tree analysis reveals six contrast groups with varying SOC scores. Several interacting factors determine the group to which an athlete belongs. Together with overuse injuries, additional factors are age, gender, and completed/not completed apprenticeship/degree. Female athletes aged between 19 and 25, who had already been subject to lay-offs due to overuse injuries, comprise the group with the lowest SOC scores. Overall, the SOC of elite athletes is slightly lower than in the general population. In accordance with other studies, a stronger SOC is also correlated significantly with better global subjective health. CONCLUSION: The identification of contrast groups with varying SOC scores contributes to the development of more targeted salutogenetic health promotion programs. Such programs would ideally include learning modules pertaining to coping with overuse injuries, as well as social support systems aiming to effectively combine education and elite sport.

Heavy metals in source-separated compost and digestates.

The production of compost and digestate from source-separated organic residues is well established in Europe. However, these products may be a source of pollutants when applied to soils. In order to assess this issue, composts, solid and liquid digestates from Switzerland were analyzed for heavy metals (Cd, Co, Cr, Cu, Ni, Pb and Zn) addressing factors which may influence the concentration levels: the treatment process, the composition, origin, particle size and impurity content of input materials, the season of input materials collection or the degree of organic matter degradation. Composts (n=81) showed mean contents being at 60% or less of the legal threshold values. Solid digestates (n=20) had 20-50% lower values for Cd, Co, Pb and Zn but similar values for Cr, Cu and Ni. Liquid digestates (n=5) exhibited mean concentrations which were approximately twice the values measured in compost for most elements. Statistical analyses did not reveal clear relationships between influencing factors and heavy metal contents. This suggests that the contamination was rather driven by factors not addressed in the present study. According to mass balance calculations related to Switzerland, the annual loads to agricultural soils resulting from the application of compost and digestates ranged between 2% (Cd) and 22% (Pb) of total heavy metal loads. At regional scale, composts and digestates are therefore minor sources of pollution compared to manure (Co, Cu, Ni, Zn), mineral fertilizer (Cd, Cr) and aerial deposition (Pb). However, for individual fields, fertilization with compost or digestates results in higher heavy metal loads than application of equivalent nutrient inputs through manure or mineral fertilizer.

Body dissatisfaction in female adolescents: extent and correlates.

This study aimed to assess the extent, patterns, and predictors of feelings of body dissatisfaction experienced by female German adolescents. Using 3D-avatar software, a sample population of 144 girls between 14 and 17 years of age was asked to estimate their actual body image, their desired body image (individual ideal), and the body image they believed their parents and their best female friend considered to be the ideal body image for them. The participants estimated their actual body mass index (BMI) to be 18.82 ± 3.01. The individual ideal body shape reported was significantly thinner, with a BMI score of 16.84 ± 2.51. Given a girl who stands 1.65 m and weighs 55 kg, this corresponds to a difference in weight of about 5.5 kg. After adjustment for the participant's self-reported BMI, participating in an esthetic sport was correlated with a significantly lower body dissatisfaction. Conversely, low socio-economic status and the amount of time spent watching TV was correlated with a significantly higher body dissatisfaction. Negative body image-related comments made by parents were significantly associated with body dissatisfaction. The girls who participated in this study would like to be an average of 1.97 BMI units thinner. The findings presented here suggest that future intervention measures should focus on the risk groups of physically inactive girls, those who smoke, and those with a lower social status and high rates of TV consumption. Intervention measures would be especially effective in German schools which offer lower education levels and should include the pupils' parents, who should be informed about the negative effects weight- and diet-related comments have on their children's body images.

Weight-control behaviour and weight-concerns in young elite athletes - a systematic review.

Weight-control behaviour is commonly observed in a wide range of elite sports, especially leanness sports, where control over body weight is crucial for high peak performance. Nonetheless, there is only a fine line between purely functional behaviour and clinically relevant eating disorders. Especially the rapid form of weight manipulation seems to foster later eating disorders. So far, most studies have focussed on adult athletes and concentrated on manifest eating disorders. In contrast, our review concentrates on young athletes and weight-control behaviour as a risk factor for eating disorders. An electronic search according to PRISMA (Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses) Statement was performed using Pubmed, PsychInfo and Spolit. The following search terms were used: weight-control, weight-control behaviour, weight gain, weight loss, pathogenic weight-control behaviour and weight-concerns, each of them combined with elite athlete, young elite athlete, adolescent elite athlete and elite sports. Overall, data are inconsistent. In general, athletes do not seem to be at a higher risk for pathogenic weight concerns and weight-control behaviour. It does seem to be more prevalent in leanness sports, though. There is evidence for pathogenic weight-control behaviour in both genders; male athletes mostly trying to gain weight whereas females emphasise weight reduction. There is not enough data to make predictions about connections with age of onset. Young elite athletes do show weight-control behaviour with varying degrees of frequency and severity. In particular, leanness sports seem to be a risk factor for weight manipulation. Further research is needed for more details and possible connections.

Sensory, yield and quality differences between organically and conventionally grown winter wheat.

BACKGROUND: Consumers expect organic produce to have higher environmental, health and sensory related qualities than conventional produce. In order to test sensory differences between bio-dynamically, bio-organically and conventionally grown winter wheat (Triticum aestivum L., cv. Runal), we performed double-blinded triangle tests with two panels on dry wholemeal flour from the harvest years 2006, 2007 and 2009 and from two field replicates of the 'DOK' long-term farming system comparison field trial near Basel, Switzerland. Yield and quality parameters were also assessed. RESULTS: Significant farming system effects were found for yield (up to 42% reduction in the organic system), thousand kernel weight, hectolitre weight and crude protein content across the three years. In the triangle tests one out of 12 pair-wise farming system comparisons (PFSCs) on wholemeal flour made from the different wheat samples showed significant sensory differentiation (between bio-dynamically and conventionally grown wheat). When all data from the three harvest years and two panels were aggregated, a statistically significant effect (P = 0.045) of PFSCs on the number of correct answers became evident. CONCLUSIONS: Although testing of dry wholemeal flour was very challenging for panellists, we were able to show that sensory differences between farming systems can occur.