Nuclear parcellation and numbers of orexinergic neurons in five species of larger brained birds.

The orexinergic/hypocretinergic system, while having several roles, appears to be a key link in the balance between arousal and food intake. In birds, to date, this system has only been examined anatomically in four species, all with brains smaller than 3.5 g and of limited phylogenetic range. Here, using orexin-A immunohistochemistry, we describe the distribution, morphology, and nuclear parcellation of orexinergic neurons within the hypothalami of a Congo gray and a Timneh gray parrot, a pied crow, an emu, and a common ostrich. These birds represent a broad phylogeny, with brains ranging in size from 7.85 to 26.5 g. Within the hypothalami of the species studied, the orexinergic neurons were organized in two clusters, and a densely packed paraventricular hypothalamic nucleus cluster located within the medial hypothalamus (Hyp), but not contacting the ventricle, and a more loosely packed lateral hypothalamic cluster in the lateral Hyp. Stereological analysis revealed a strong correlation, using phylogenetic generalized least squares regression analyses, between brain mass and the total number of orexinergic neurons, as well as soma parameters such as volume and area. Orexinergic axonal terminals evinced two types of boutons, larger and the smaller en passant boutons. Unlike the orexinergic system in mammals, which has several variances in cluster organization, that of the birds studied, in the present and previous studies, currently shows organizational invariance, despite the differences in brain and body mass, phylogenetic relationships, and life-histories of the species studied.

Apparent absence of hypothalamic cholinergic neurons in the common ostrich and emu: Implications for global brain states during sleep.

We examined the presence/absence and parcellation of cholinergic neurons in the hypothalami of five birds: a Congo grey parrot (Psittacus erithacus), a Timneh grey parrot (P. timneh), a pied crow (Corvus albus), a common ostrich (Struthio camelus), and an emu (Dromaius novaehollandiae). Using immunohistochemistry to an antibody raised against the enzyme choline acetyltransferase, hypothalamic cholinergic neurons were observed in six distinct clusters in the medial, lateral, and ventral hypothalamus in the parrots and crow, similar to prior observations made in the pigeon. The expression of cholinergic nuclei was most prominent in the Congo grey parrot, both in the medial and lateral hypothalamus. In contrast, no evidence of cholinergic neurons in the hypothalami of either the ostrich or emu was found. It is known that the expression of sleep states in the ostrich is unusual and resembles that observed in the monotremes that also lack hypothalamic cholinergic neurons. It has been proposed that the cholinergic system acts globally to produce and maintain brain states, such as those of arousal and rapid-eye-movement sleep. The hiatus in the cholinergic system of the ostrich, due to the lack of hypothalamic cholinergic neurons, may explain, in part, the unusual expression of sleep states in this species. These comparative anatomical and sleep studies provide supportive evidence for global cholinergic actions and may provide an important framework for our understanding of one broad function of the cholinergic system and possible dysfunctions associated with global cholinergic neural activity.

Bilateral duplicated inferior vena cava associated with aberrant internal iliac and gonadal veins: A case-based narrative review.

BACKGROUND: The left side anterior retroperitoneal approach is preferred for the management of lumbosacral spine disorders as there is reduced risk for vascular injury. The presence of multiple and uncommon venous variations on either side of the spine, like the bilateral duplicated inferior vena cava (DIVC), may complicate surgery in this region. The current study describes two rare cases of bilateral duplicated inferior vena cava associated with internal iliac and gonadal veins. METHODS: The cases were identified during routine human dissections of the posterior abdominal wall of 89 (45 males, 44 females) individuals. The course, relations and morphometry of each duplicated inferior vena cava were examined and recorded. RESULTS: Two (2.2%) of the 89 (1 male, 1 female) dissected individuals showed the presence of bilateral duplicated infrarenal segments of the inferior vena cava. In both cases, the pre-aortic trunk (vein) was the largest and the left inferior vena cava was the smallest. Both cases of bilateral DIVC presented with anomalous interiliac communicating veins, internal iliac veins, and drainage sites of the left gonadal veins. CONCLUSIONS: The duplicated inferior vena cava may present with associated venous anomalies like those related to the gonadal and internal iliac veins. Knowledge of the duplicated inferior vena cava and its associated venous anomalies may be essential for accurately identifying and diagnosing vascular dysfunction and improving radiological interpretation across multiple surgical specialities.

Topographic and Structural Anatomy of the Suspensory Ligament of the Penis: Implications for Phalloplasty.

BACKGROUND: The suspensory ligamentous system of the penis supports the penis when erect and plays a key role during coitus. These ligaments, which are prone to injury during coitus, are clinically important in penile reconstruction procedures. OBJECTIVES: The current study investigated the macro- and microanatomy of the suspensory ligamentous system of the penis to determine the origin, course, insertion, dimensions, and tissue composition of these ligaments, knowledge of which is vital for successful penile reconstruction procedures. METHODS: The study utilized a total of 49 cadavers. Gross anatomy dissection, MRI, and histological staining were performed to elucidate the topography, dimensions, and tissue composition of the suspensory ligaments of the penis. RESULTS: Three ligaments were observed to form the suspensory ligamentous system of the penis. The most superficial is the fundiform ligament, which consists of superficial bundles and deep median bundles, with the former arising from the Scarpa's fascia and the latter arising from the linea alba of the anterior abdominal wall; both inserted into the superficial fascia of the penis. The suspensory ligament of the penis arose from the pubic symphysis and inserted into the deep fascia (Buck's fascia) of the penis. The arcuate ligament arose from the body of the pubis and pubic symphysis and inserted into the Buck's fascia. The ligaments were determined to consist of adipose tissue, collagen fibers, elastic fibers and reticular fibers, in varying proportions. CONCLUSIONS: The suspensory ligaments of the penis exhibit a fan-like structure on the penis that allows the forward movement of the penis as a result of engorgement of the erectile bodies while simultaneously offering support.

Estimation of sex using dimensions around the metatarsal diaphyseal nutrient foramen: Application of discriminant function analysis and logistic regression models.

Sex estimation equations are population-specific, and a wider use of multiple bones to generate equations will increase the accuracy of sex estimation in forensic settings. The metatarsal bones have been used previously, however the dimensions around the diaphyseal nutrient foramen have not been utilised in sex estimation. The current study aimed to determine the utility of the dimensions around the nutrient foramen of metatarsal bones in estimating sex in the South Africans of European descent (SAED). Five measurements around the nutrient foramen were taken from a total of 876 metatarsal bones (first to fifth) from 186 individual skeletons (99 males, 87 females) obtained from the Raymond A. Dart Modern Skeletal Collection. Measurements subjected to direct and stepwise discriminant function (DFA) and logistic regression (LRA) analyses included total length, distance from proximal end to nutrient foramen, circumference, and mediolateral and dorsoplantar diameters at the level of the nutrient foramen. The original classification accuracies for multivariable functions of the stepwise and direct DFA ranged from 83.1-88.3% to 85.5-88.3%, respectively. The original classification accuracies for multivariable functions of the stepwise and direct LRA ranged from 83.3%-88.7% to 86.2%-88.3%, respectively. The cross-validation classifications showed a drop of 0-2.4% for DFA and 0.2-1.1% for LRA. The width measurements were better predictors of sex than length. The dimensions around the metatarsal bone nutrient foramen exhibit sexual dimorphism in the SAED. The generated DFA and LRA functions produced high average classification accuracies which are useful in sex estimation during forensic human identification.

Topographical anatomy and clinical implications of the metatarsal diaphyseal nutrient foramina across South African populations.

PURPOSE: Metatarsal fractures often occur around the diaphyseal nutrient foramina (NF) which vary in topography depending on population affinity. Topographical and morphometrical knowledge of the NF is crucial in understanding fracture development and fracture site healing patterns. The current study aimed to describe the topography and the morphometry of the metatarsal diaphyseal NF in South African Africans (SAA), South Africans of European descent (SAED) and South Africans of Mixed Ancestry (SAMA). METHODS: The study examined 4284 dry cadaveric metatarsals from both sexes and sides of these populations for NF topography and morphometry, including the presence, number, location, position, size and direction of the NF on the metatarsal bones. RESULTS: The NF was present in 99.4% of the metatarsals. Most (84.5%) metatarsals examined had a single NF. Most (97.4%) NF were located in the middle third of the metatarsal bones. The median foramina index (FI) of the second metatarsal exhibited population affinity and significant differences were found both on the left second metatarsal (P = 0.043), and the right second metatarsal (P = 0.046). The position of NF was predominantly lateral on the first (92.4%), second (64.9%) and third (59.1%) metatarsals, whilst the position was predominantly medial on the fifth (65.1%) metatarsals. The NF positions on the fourth metatarsals showed the greatest population variability. The first metatarsals had primarily dominant-sized and distally directed NF whilst the second through fifth had primarily secondary-sized and proximally directed NF. CONCLUSION: The topographical anatomy of the metatarsal diaphyseal NF appears similar across the South African populations. Metatarsal bones are highly vascularized bones presenting with multiple nutrient foramina.

Topography and Composition of the Iliolumbar Veins in a South African Cohort: Implications for Spinal Surgery.

STUDY DESIGN: A descriptive cross-sectional study of the anatomical variations, morphometry, and histology of the iliolumbar veins (ILVs). PURPOSE: This study aimed to describe the anatomical variations of the ILVs and determine their tissue composition in South African cadavers of European descent. OVERVIEW OF LITERATURE: A safe anterior surgical approach to the L4/L5 intervertebral disc space requires understanding the anatomy of the ILVs. Limited understanding of ILVs and their variations may lead to inadvertent avulsion of veins with subsequent hemorrhage and damage to the adjacent nerves intraoperatively. Variations in ILVs are population specific, but such reports are limited in the South African population. METHODS: Eighty-nine adult cadavers were dissected to reveal ILV patterns. The variations (origin, course, and drainage pattern), morphometries, and topography of the ILVs were studied. A total of 19 (10 proximal, nine distal) ILVs were processed for hematoxylin and eosin, Masson's trichrome, and Verhoeff's histological staining to determine the tissue composition. RESULTS: The ILVs were identified in 100% of the cases, and 45% of the ILVs were anastomosed to each other bilaterally. The rightside ILVs terminated into the posterior surfaces of the iliac vessels (p =0.001), whereas the left-side ILVs terminated into the lateral surfaces (p =0.001). The left-side proximal ILVs had higher elastic fiber composition (p =0.030). The ratio of the ILVs' elastic fibers to collagen fibers was 1:9, and 61% of the cadavers exhibited type 1 ILV pattern. Moreover, 42% of the ILVs were at the S1 vertebral level with 31% lying between L4 and L5 spinal nerve roots. The obturator nerve coursed anteriorly to the ILVs in 96% of cases. CONCLUSIONS: The ILV variations described for South Africans present new additional patterns, such as bilateral anastomosis and laterality of the terminal drainage. The ILVs have more collagen fibers than elastic fibers, predisposing them to avulsion during surgical retraction. The identification of all the ILVs is crucial to minimize inadvertent hemorrhage and damage to adjacent structures.

Efficacy of Topical Tranexamic Acid (Cyclokapron) in "Wet" Field Infiltration with Dilute Local Anaesthetic Solutions in Plastic Surgery.

BACKGROUND: Surgical bleeding may lead to the need for blood transfusion and minimizing blood loss has been a basic principle followed by surgeons for generations. Antifibrinolytic agents are widely used to reduce perioperative haemorrhage. The present study sought to assess the efficacy of directly infiltrated tranexamic acid in ameliorating bruising in participants undergoing cosmetic plastic surgery (liposuction). MATERIALS AND METHODS: The study employed a blinded, prospective, randomized, case control design. Thirty-three patients were studied. Tranexamic acid free infiltration tumescent solution (saline, bupivacaine lignocaine and adrenalin) was infiltrated to one flank of patients undergoing liposuction of flanks. The other flank was infiltrated with the same tumescent solution (saline, bupivacaine lignocaine and adrenalin) mixed with tranexamic acid (0.1%). Bruises were photographed one and seven days after surgery and measured for size. The surface area of the bruises was calculated using ImageJ software. We compared the bruised surface are between the tranexamic acid infiltrated flank and non-tranexamic acid infiltrated flank in the same patient. The model employed involved measuring the bruises on each flank of the same patient, with surgery by a single surgeon using the same infiltration and surgical techniques for both sides. The only variable was the difference in tranexamic acid concentration between study and control flanks. RESULTS: We found that use of tranexamic acid consistently resulted in a smaller bruise area on days one and seven after liposuction of flanks. Results were statistically significant. CONCLUSIONS: This is the first study examining addition of tranexamic acid to a tumescent infiltration solution-to produce a predictable local concentration of tranexamic acid-in order to maximize surgical site effect and minimize systemic effect. The authors recommend incorporation of tranexamic acid as a routine component along with adrenaline and local anaesthetics in tumescent field infiltration solution 10-15 min before commencement of the cosmetic surgery. LEVEL OF EVIDENCE II: This journal requires that authors assign a level of evidence to each article. For a full description of these Evidence-Based Medicine ratings, please refer to the Table of Contents or the online Instructions to Authors www.springer.com/00266 .

Accuracies of discriminant function equations for sex estimation using long bones of upper extremities.

One of the scopes of practice of forensic anthropologists is the estimation of sex from skeletal remains. As a result, population-specific discriminant function equations have been developed from measurements of various bones of the human skeletons. Steyn, Patriquin (Forensic Sci Int 191 (1-3):113, 2009) noted that the lack of skeletal collections and data from most parts of the world has made this process impractical. Previous attempts to develop global discriminant function equations from measurements of the pelvis showed that population-specific equations are not necessary as equations derived from other populations yielded high sex estimation scores when applied to a different population. However, information on the suitability and applicability of generalised equations in sex estimation using long bones is still scarce. It is, therefore, the aim of this study to assess the accuracies of population-specific discriminant function equations derived from measurements of long bones of the upper limb of South African population groups. Data analysed in the current study were obtained from Mokoena, Billings, Bidmos, Mazengenya (Forensic Sci Int 278:404, 2017) and Mokoena, Billings, Gibbon, Bidmos, Mazengenya (Science & Justice 6(59):660-666, 2019) in which a total sample of 988 bones (humeri, radii, and ulnae) of South Africans of African descent (SAAD), South Africans of European descent (SAED) and Mixed Ancestry South Africans (MASA) were measured. Stepwise and direct discriminant function analyses were performed on the pooled data. Each function was used to estimate the sex of cases in each population group separately and average accuracies calculated. Thereafter, population-specific discriminant function equations were formulated for each population group and then applied to other population groups. The average accuracies of functions for pooled data ranged between 80.7 and 86.5%. The cross-validation average accuracies remained unchanged for most functions, confirming the validity of derived functions. A drop in average accuracies (0.8-5.3%) was observed when the functions were tested on a sample of SAAD while increased average accuracy was observed for the SAED and MASA (0.5-6.9%). When population-specific functions for a particular population group were applied to other groups, a wide range of a drop in average accuracies was observed (1.3 to 22.4%). This thereby confirms that population-specific equations should not be applied to other population groups. However, discriminant function equations from the pooled data of South Africans are accurate in the estimation of sex and efforts should be made towards the development and validation of such equations from as many bones of the human skeleton.

Putative adult neurogenesis in palaeognathous birds: The common ostrich (Struthio camelus) and emu (Dromaius novaehollandiae).

In the current study, we examined adult neurogenesis throughout the brain of the common ostrich (Struthio camelus) and emu (Dromaius novaehollandiae) using immunohistochemistry for the endogenous markers PCNA which labels proliferating cells, and DCX, which stains immature and migrating neurons. The distribution of PCNA and DCX labelled cells was widespread throughout the brain of both species. The highest density of cells immunoreactive to both markers was observed in the olfactory bulbs and the telencephalon, especially the subventricular zone of the lateral ventricle. Proliferative hot spots, identified with strong PCNA and DCX immunolabelling, were identified in the dorsal and ventral poles of the rostral aspects of the lateral ventricles. The density of PCNA immunoreactive cells was less in the telencephalon of the emu compared to the common ostrich. Substantial numbers of PCNA immunoreactive cells were observed in the diencephalon and brainstem, but DCX immunoreactivity was weaker in these regions, preferentially staining axons and dendrites over cell bodies, except in the medial regions of the hypothalamus where distinct DCX immunoreactive cells and fibres were observed. PCNA and DCX immunoreactive cells were readily observed in moderate density in the cortical layers of the cerebellum of both species. The distribution of putative proliferating cells and immature neurons in the brain of the common ostrich and the emu is widespread, far more so than in mammals, and compares with the neognathous birds, and suggests that brain plasticity and neuronal turnover is an important aspect of cognitive brain functions in these birds.

Gastrointestinal Tract Plasmablastic Lymphoma in HIV-Infected Adults: A Histopathological Review.

BACKGROUND.: Plasmablastic lymphoma (PBL) is an aggressive B-cell lymphoma that is characterized by the expression of plasma cell antigens and loss of pan B-cell antigens. The neoplasm is extensively reported in the oral cavity and anorectal region but rarely in the gastrointestinal tract, where only isolated case reports and small case series have been reported. In the current study, morphologic, immunohistochemical, and molecular features of 17 cases of gastrointestinal tract PBL were reviewed. METHODS.: Ten-year retrospective study that reappraised the histomorphological and immunophenotypical profiles of HIV-associated PBLs in the gastrointestinal tract. RESULTS.: The mean age of the study patients was 41 years with a 3:1 ratio of males to females. The most common site of tumor origin was the small intestine (42%), followed by the stomach (29%) and the colon (29%). Majority of the cases showed a predominant diffuse (82%) growth pattern. Immunoblasts and plasmablasts were observed in all cases. Plasmacytic differentiation was seen in 5 (29%) cases. Additional observations not previously described or emphasized in literature includes pseudo-alveolar growth pattern, centroblast-predominance, multinucleated giant cells, and clear cell change. Immunohistochemistry revealed absence of pan B-cell antigens and expression of plasma cell antigens in all cases. Epstein-Barr virus-encoded RNA was expressed in 53% of the cases. CONCLUSIONS.: This study highlights the spectrum of histopathological features seen in gastrointestinal tract PBLs. Awareness of this entity and its histopathological features in the gastrointestinal tract is essential for making a timely and accurate diagnosis and improving patient outcomes.

Construction and reconstruction of brain circuits: normal and pathological axon guidance.

Perception of our environment entirely depends on the close interaction between the central and peripheral nervous system. In order to communicate each other, both systems must develop in parallel and in coordination. During development, axonal projections from the CNS as well as the PNS must extend over large distances to reach their appropriate target cells. To do so, they read and follow a series of axon guidance molecules. Interestingly, while these molecules play critical roles in guiding developing axons, they have also been shown to be critical in other major neurodevelopmental processes, such as the migration of cortical progenitors. Currently, a major hurdle for brain repair after injury or neurodegeneration is the absence of axonal regeneration in the mammalian CNS. By contrasts, PNS axons can regenerate. Many hypotheses have been put forward to explain this paradox but recent studies suggest that hacking neurodevelopmental mechanisms may be the key to promote CNS regeneration. Here we provide a seminar report written by trainees attending the second Flagship school held in Alpbach, Austria in September 2018 organized by the International Society for Neurochemistry (ISN) together with the Journal of Neurochemistry (JCN). This advanced school has brought together leaders in the fields of neurodevelopment and regeneration in order to discuss major keystones and future challenges in these respective fields.

Development of discriminant functions to estimate sex in upper limb bones for mixed ancestry South Africans.

South Africa has one of the highest murder rates in the world, which is associated with an increasing number of unidentified individuals. Forensic anthropologists can assist in these cases to reduce the number of potential victims the remains may belong to. Sex estimation potentially decreases the number of possible victims by half. The mixed ancestry population in South Africa is the second largest group of people; however, there remains a paucity of data and population-specific methods for sex estimation in this group. The aim of this study was to assess the potential for metrices obtained around the nutrient foramen and the maximum length of upper limb long bones to estimate sex in mixed ancestry South Africans using discriminant function analysis. A total of 328 humeri, radii and ulnae from individuals of mixed ancestry were analysed. Sex was correctly classified with an average classification accuracy of 84.3% in the humeri, 88.3% for radii and 83.5% for the ulnae. Total length was the single best predictor of sex; the combination of total length with dimensions related to the nutrient foramen produced high classification accuracies in the current study. Overall, sexual dimorphism was observed in mixed ancestry South Africans upper limb long bones. The findings of this study further emphasise the need for population-specific standards of sexing in an attempt to improve current methods of forensic identification of descendants.

Myositis ossificans traumatica of the piriformis muscle: a rare mature case in an adult African male.

Myositis ossificans traumatica (MOT) is a common form of heterotopic ossification associated to trauma. Rare mature manifestations and topographically atypical presentations of MOT are often misdiagnosed as osteosarcoma. This case study discusses a rare, mature case of MOT of the piriformis muscle, potentially clinically associated with piriformis syndrome. The ossification was observed on a dry sacral bone of an adult skeleton belonging to a South African male during routine inventory of the Raymond A. Dart Collection of Human Skeletons, the University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg. The MOT was located on the anterior aspect of the sacrum at a site corresponding to the upper portion of the origin of the muscle and extended laterally towards the greater trochanter, beyond the greater sciatic notch. It was cylindrical in shape and measured approximately 52.70 mm in length and 12.10 mm in diameter. Micro-focus CT revealed an extensive and mature bony development of the piriformis muscle with distinct outer cortical and inner trabecular bone. In addition, the skeleton showed widespread healed skeletal trauma, suggesting a history of trauma. The MOT was completely fused to the sacral bone excluding the possibility of congenital anomalies. Information on the MOT of the piriformis muscle is vital to clinicians and radiographers to aid in successful diagnosis and management of the piriformis syndrome and sciatica in the gluteal region. This case also provides a rare example to biological anthropologists, paleoanthropologists and bioarchaeologists of the representation of pathologies like these on a dry bone sample.

Quantitative analysis of age and life-history stage related changes in DCX expression in the male Japanese quail (Cortunix japonica) telencephalon.

Most avian neurogenesis studies focused on the song control system and little attention has been given to non-song birds such as the Japanese quail. However, the only few neurogenesis studies in quails mainly focused on the sex steroid sensitive areas of the brain such as the medial preoptic and lateral septal nuclei. Despite the important role the quail telencephalon plays in filial imprinting and passive avoidance learning, neurogenesis in this structure has been completely overlooked. The aim of this study was therefore to quantitatively determine how DCX expression in the Japanese quail telencephalon changes with post hatching age (3-12 weeks) and life history stage. In this study, DCX was used as a proxy for neuronal incorporation. Bipolar and multipolar DCX immunoreactive cells were observed in the entire telencephalon except for the entopallium and arcopallium. In addition, DCX expression in all the eight telencephalic areas quantified was strongly negatively correlated with post-hatching age. Furthermore, numbers of bipolar and multipolar DCX immunoreactive cells were higher in the juvenile compared to subadult and adult quails. In conclusion, neuronal incorporation in the quail telencephalon is widespread but it declines with post hatching age. In addition, the most dramatic decline in neuronal incorporation in the telencephalic areas quantified takes place just after the birds have attained sexual maturity.

Age-related changes in Ki-67 and DCX expression in the BALB/ c mouse (Mus Musculus) brain.

Several studies have identified age as one of the strongest regulators of neurogenesis in the mammalian brain. However, previous age-related studies focused mainly on changes in neurogenesis during different stages of adulthood and did not describe changes in neurogenesis through the different life history stages of the animal. The aim of this study was therefore to determine time course changes in neurogenesis in the male BALB/c mouse brain at postnatal ages 1 week to 12 weeks, spanning juvenile, sub adult and adult life history stages. To achieve this, Ki-67 and DCX immunohistochemistry was used to assess changes in cell proliferation and neuronal incorporation respectively. Ki-67 expression was mainly observed in the olfactory bulb, rostral migratory stream, sub ventricular zone of lateral ventricle and the sub granular zone of the dentate gyrus. In addition, fewer Ki-67 positive cells were also observed in the neocortex, cerebellum and tectum. DCX was expressed in similar regions as Ki-67 except for the cerebellum and tectum. Expression of both Ki-67 and DCX sharply decreased with advancing age or life history stages in the sub ventricular zone, rostral migratory stream and sub granular zone of the BALB/c mouse brain. Neurogenesis therefore persists throughout all life history stages in the BALB/c mouse brain although it decreases with age.

Revisiting Avicenna's (ad 980-1037) Anatomical Concepts of the Musculoskeletal and Peripheral Nervous Systems in the Canon of Medicine

Avicenna, as he is known in the West, was a famous Persian Muslim physician and influential philosopher-scientist of the medieval Islamic world. He wrote and compiled the Canon of Medicine text, a book which was adopted as the main text of medicine at the most Persian and Western universities. The book consists of basic medical sciences, applied clinical sciences and pharmacology. In the current study, we present an analysis of the anatomy of the musculoskeletal and peripheral nervous systems as viewed by Avicenna in the Canon of Medicine, and compare them with the relevant modern literature.

Changes in neurogenesis with post­hatching age in the male Japanese quail (Cortunix japonica) brain.

Most avian neurogenesis studies have previously focused on the song control system and little attention has been given to non­song birds. The objective of this study was to assess changes in neurogenesis associated with post­hatching age (3­12 weeks) in the Japanese quail brain using proliferating cell nuclear antigen (PCNA) and doublecortin (DCX) immunohistochemistry. PCNA­immunoreactive (ir) cells were observed mainly in the olfactory bulb ventricular zone, telencephalic ventricular zones and cerebellum. Fewer PCNA­ir cells were also observed in the hypothalamus, thalamus and bed nucleus of the stria terminalis. In telencephalic ventricular zones, PCNA­ir cells were concentrated ventrally and dorsally adjacent to the mesopallium and medial striatum, respectively. DCX­ir cells were observed in the olfactory bulb, telencephalon and cerebellum. Furthermore, DCX­ir cells were scattered throughout the pallium except in the entopallium and arcopallium, septal nuclei and striatum. Fewer DCX­ir cells were also observed in the hippocampus and bed nucleus of stria terminalis. The density of PCNA­ir cells and DCX­ir cells in all brain areas declined with post­hatching age. In conclusion, cell proliferation appears to be restricted to the ventricular zones whereas neuronal recruitment is more widespread in the olfactory bulb, telencephalon and cerebellum. Postnatal neuronal incorporation appears to be absent in the diencephalon and mesencephalon.

Evidence of the sternalis muscle in two South African cadavers.

The sternalis muscle is an infrequent, non-pathological anatomical variant typically misrepresented in a clinical context. It presents with 3-8% prevalence, according to cadaveric studies. The muscles were identified during routine cadaver prosection at the School of Anatomical Sciences, University of the Witwatersrand. Here, we report two cases of the sternalis muscle in two South African White cadavers. Analysis of the sternalis muscles revealed unilaterally present, distinctly defined muscle masses on the right (case number 1, female) and left (case number 2, male) hemithorax, lateral to the sternum. The muscles occurred with a prevalence of 2.25% within the cadaveric population examined. The prevalence of the sternalis muscle is generally low, especially in the European population. Their presence represents the remnants of the cutaneous muscles in the ventral thorax of lower animals. Clinically, the sternalis muscle may be misinterpreted as a pathological mass or lesion, thus accurate knowledge regarding its variations and prevalence is of importance.

Dimensions around the nutrient foramina of the tibia and fibula in the estimation of sex.

Sex estimation from skeletal remains is one of the key components in establishing a biological profile and consequent identification of an individual in a forensic and medico-legal practice. The use of dimensions around the nutrient foramen in instances where long bones may be fragmented and damaged is of benefit due to the fact that the nutrient foramen is easily identifiable and may be preserved on the shaft of long bones. This study is an investigation of the usefulness of various measurements around the nutrient foramen of the tibia and fibula of South Africans in an attempt to develop osteometric standards for sex estimation. The sample included 206 tibiae and 204 fibulae of South African Africans (SAA) and South African whites (SAW) procured from the Raymond A. Dart Collection of Human Skeletons based at the University of the Witwatersrand. Sex was correctly classified for the tibia with an accuracy ranging between 79-82% in SAA and 84-88% in SAW, with the circumference at the level of the nutrient foramen as the single best predictor of sex in both populations. An accuracy ranging from 69 to 74% in SAA and 70-77% in SAW was observed for the combined measurements on the fibula. The current study confirms the usefulness of measurements around the nutrient foramen of the tibia in the assignment of sex. However functions of the fibula generally performed poorly and should be used with caution.