Current status of Phytophthora in Australia.

Among the most economically relevant and environmentally devastating diseases globally are those caused by Phytophthora species. In Australia, production losses in agriculture and forestry result from several well-known cosmopolitan Phytophthora species and infestation of natural ecosystems by Phytophthora cinnamomi have caused irretrievable loss to biodiversity especially in proteaceous dominated heathlands. For this review, all available records of Phytophthora in Australia were collated and curated, resulting in a database of 7 869 records, of which 2 957 have associated molecular data. Australian databases hold records for 99 species, of which 20 are undescribed. Eight species have no records linked to molecular data, and their presence in Australia is considered doubtful. The 99 species reside in 10 of the 12 clades recognised within the complete phylogeny of Phytophthora. The review includes discussion on each of these species' status and additional information provided for another 29 species of concern. The first species reported in Australia in 1900 was Phytophthora infestans. By 2000, 27 species were known, predominantly from agriculture. The significant increase in species reported in the subsequent 20 years has coincided with extensive surveys in natural ecosystems coupled with molecular taxonomy and the recognition of numerous new phylogenetically distinct but morphologically similar species. Routine and targeted surveys within Australian natural ecosystems have resulted in the description of 27 species since 2009. Due to the new species descriptions over the last 20 years, many older records have been reclassified based on molecular identification. The distribution of records is skewed toward regions with considerable activity in high productivity agriculture, horticulture and forestry, and native vegetation at risk from P. cinnamomi. Native and exotic hosts of different Phytophthora species are found throughout the phylogeny; however, species from clades 1, 7 and 8 are more likely to be associated with exotic hosts. One of the most difficult challenges to overcome when establishing a pest status is a lack of reliable data on the current state of a species in any given country or location. The database compiled here for Australia and the information provided for each species overcomes this challenge. This review will aid federal and state governments in risk assessments and trade negotiations by providing a comprehensive resource on the current status of Phytophthora species in Australia. Citation: Burgess TI, Edwards J, Drenth A, et al. 2021. Current status of Phytophthora in Australia. Persoonia 47: 151-177. https://doi.org/10.3767/persoonia.2021.47.05.

Current status of Phytophthora in Australia.

Among the most economically relevant and environmentally devastating diseases globally are those caused by Phytophthora species. In Australia, production losses in agriculture and forestry result from several well-known cosmopolitan Phytophthora species and infestation of natural ecosystems by Phytophthora cinnamomi have caused irretrievable loss to biodiversity especially in proteaceous dominated heathlands. For this review, all available records of Phytophthora in Australia were collated and curated, resulting in a database of 7 869 records, of which 2 957 have associated molecular data. Australian databases hold records for 99 species, of which 20 are undescribed. Eight species have no records linked to molecular data, and their presence in Australia is considered doubtful. The 99 species reside in 10 of the 12 clades recognised within the complete phylogeny of Phytophthora. The review includes discussion on each of these species' status and additional information provided for another 29 species of concern. The first species reported in Australia in 1900 was Phytophthora infestans. By 2000, 27 species were known, predominantly from agriculture. The significant increase in species reported in the subsequent 20 years has coincided with extensive surveys in natural ecosystems coupled with molecular taxonomy and the recognition of numerous new phylogenetically distinct but morphologically similar species. Routine and targeted surveys within Australian natural ecosystems have resulted in the description of 27 species since 2009. Due to the new species descriptions over the last 20 years, many older records have been reclassified based on molecular identification. The distribution of records is skewed toward regions with considerable activity in high productivity agriculture, horticulture and forestry, and native vegetation at risk from P. cinnamomi. Native and exotic hosts of different Phytophthora species are found throughout the phylogeny; however, species from clades 1, 7 and 8 are more likely to be associated with exotic hosts. One of the most difficult challenges to overcome when establishing a pest status is a lack of reliable data on the current state of a species in any given country or location. The database compiled here for Australia and the information provided for each species overcomes this challenge. This review will aid federal and state governments in risk assessments and trade negotiations by providing a comprehensive resource on the current status of Phytophthora species in Australia. Citation: Burgess TI, Edwards J, Drenth A, et al. 2021. Current status of Phytophthora in Australia. Persoonia 47: 151-177. https://doi.org/10.3767/persoonia.2021.47.05.

Improving discharge planning communication between hospitals and patients.

BACKGROUND: A potential barrier to patient discharge from hospital is communication problems between the treating team and the patient or family regarding discharge planning. AIM: To determine if a bedside 'Leaving Hospital Information Sheet' increases patient and family's knowledge of discharge date and destination and the name of the key clinician primarily responsible for team-patient communication. METHODS: This article is a 'before-after' study of patients, their families and the interdisciplinary ward-based clinical team. Outcomes assessed pre-implementation and post-implementation of a bedside 'Leaving Hospital Information Sheet' containing discharge information for patients and families. Patients and families were asked if they knew the key clinician for team-patient communication and the proposed discharge date and discharge destination. Responses were compared with those set by the team. Staff were surveyed regarding their perceptions of patient awareness of discharge plans and the benefit of the 'Leaving Hospital Information Sheet'. RESULTS: Significant improvement occurred regarding patients' knowledge of their key clinician for team-patient communication (31% vs 75%; P = 0.0001), correctly identifying who they were (47% vs 79%; P = 0.02), and correctly reporting their anticipated discharge date (54% vs 86%; P = 0.004). There was significant improvement in the family's knowledge of the anticipated discharge date (78% vs 96%; P = 0.04). Staff reported the 'Leaving Hospital Information Sheet' assisted with communication regarding anticipated discharge date and destination (very helpful n = 11, 39%; a little bit helpful n = 11, 39%). CONCLUSIONS: A bedside 'Leaving Hospital Information Sheet' can potentially improve communication between patients, families and their treating team.

Can the Mini Nutritional Assessment (MNA) Be Used as a Nutrition Evaluation Tool for Subacute Inpatients over an Average Length of Stay?

OBJECTIVE: The prevalence of malnutrition in subacute inpatient settings has been reported to be 30-50%. While there are a number of nutrition evaluation tools which have been validated to diagnose malnutrition, the use of a validated nutrition evaluation tool to measure changes in nutritional status during an average length of stay for a subacute inpatient has not yet been tested. This study aims to determine the potential of the full MNA (full Mini Nutritional Assessment) and MNA (Mini Nutritional Assessment Short Form) scores to measure change in nutritional status over an average subacute inpatient stay (21 days). DESIGN: A prospective observational study. SETTING: The study was performed in three Rehabilitation and Geriatric Evaluation and Management (GEM) wards of the Kingston Centre, Monash Health, Melbourne, Australia. PARTICIPANTS: All patients ≥65 years admitted to these wards with an expected length of stay of at least 14 days were considered for inclusion in this study. MEASUREMENTS: Nutritional status was assessed on admission using the full MNA as part of usual dietetic care and patients were provided with nutrition intervention/diet therapy based on full MNA classification. Full MNA score (0-30), MNA score (0-14), anthropometry (weight and height) and nutritional biochemistry (serum albumin, transthyretin and C-reactive protein) were compared between admission and day 20.5 ± 2.4. RESULTS: Mean age (± SD) of 83 ± 7 years, n=114. For those patients diagnosed at risk of malnutrition or malnourished (n=103), there were significant increases in full MNA score (1.8 ± 2.4, p<0.001), MNA score (0.9 ± 1.7, p<0.001), weight (0.6 ± 2.5 kg, p=0.017) and serum albumin (1.4 ± 4.4 g/L, p=0.003) over the study period. All four of the full MNA domain sub-scores, also increased significantly in those patients diagnosed at risk of malnutrition or malnourished (n=103): anthropometric assessment (p<0.001), dietary assessment (p<0.001), general status assessment (p=0.019) and self-perceived health and nutrition states (p=0.033). CONCLUSION: Both the MNA and full MNA can be used to evaluate nutrition progress within the subacute inpatient setting over a three week time period, thereby providing clinicians with feedback on a patient's nutrition progress and assisting with ongoing care planning. Due to its ease of use and shorter time required to complete, the MNA may be the preferred nutrition evaluation tool in this setting.

Estrogen-induced osteogenesis in intact female mice lacking ERbeta.

We recently found that estrogen receptor (ER) antagonists prevent high-dose estrogen from inducing the formation of new cancellous bone within the medullary cavity of mouse long bones. In the present investigation, we studied the role of specific ER subtypes in this response by examining whether this is impaired in female ERbeta(-/-) mice previously generated by targeted gene deletion. Vehicle or 17beta-estradiol (E(2)) (range 4-4,000 microg. kg(-1). day(-1)) was administered to intact female ERbeta(-/-) mice and wild-type littermates by subcutaneous injection for 28 days. The osteogenic response was subsequently assessed by histomorphometry performed on longitudinal and cross sections of the tibia. E(2) was found to cause an equivalent increase in cancellous bone formation in ERbeta(-/-) mice and littermate controls, as assessed at the proximal and distal regions of the proximal tibial metaphysis. E(2) also resulted in a similar increase in endosteal mineral apposition rate in these two genotypes, as assessed at the tibial diaphysis. In contrast, cortical area in ERbeta(-/-) mice was found to be greater than that in wild types irrespective of E(2) treatment, as was tibial bone mineral density as measured by dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry, consistent with previous reports of increased cortical bone mass in these animals. We conclude that, although ERbeta acts as a negative modulator of cortical modeling, this isoform does not appear to contribute to high-dose estrogen's ability to induce new cancellous bone formation in mouse long bones.

Inhibitor profiles of alkaline phosphatases in bovine preattachment embryos and adult tissues.

The alkaline phosphatases are a small family of isozymes. Bovine preattachment embryos transcribe mRNA for two tissue-specific alkaline phosphatases (TSAP2 and TSAP3) beginning at the 4- and 8-cell stages. Whereas no mRNA has been detected in oocytes, there is maternally inherited alkaline phosphatase activity. It is not known which isozyme(s) is responsible for the maternal activity or when TSAP2 and TSAP3 form functional protein. No antibodies are available that recognize the relevant bovine alkaline phosphatases. Therefore, sensitivity to heat and chemical inhibition was used to separate the different isozymes. By screening tissues, it was determined that the bovine tissue-nonspecific alkaline phosphatase (TNAP) is inactivated by low temperatures (65C) and low concentrations of levamisole (<1 mM), whereas bovine tissue-specific isozymes require higher temperatures (90C) and levamisole concentrations (>5 mM). Inhibition by L-homoarginine and L-phenylalanine was less informative. Cumulus cells transcribe two isozymes and the pattern of inhibition suggested heterodimer formation. Inhibition of alkaline phosphatase in bovine embryos before the 8-cell stage indicated the presence of only TNAP. At the 16-cell stage the pattern was consistent with TNAP plus TSAP2 or -3 activity, and in morulae and blastocysts the pattern indicated that the maternal TNAP is fully supplanted by TSAP2 or TSAP3.

Developmental expression patterns of the signaling adapters FRS-2 and FRS-3 during early embryogenesis.

Two fibroblast growth factor (FGF) receptor substrates (FRS2 and FRS3) are involved in downstream signaling from activated FGF receptors and neurotrophin-activated Trk receptors. Despite the importance of signaling from these factors in embryogenesis, FRS2 and FRS3 expression patterns during development are unknown. In this study we characterize the expression of FRS2 and FRS3 from E7 to parturition and in adult murine tissues. Both are first detected in whole E8.5 CD1 mouse embryos. FRS2 is detected as early as E7 in the developing syncytiotrophoblast, later in the neural tube (NT) and in many adult and fetal tissues. FRS3 is more restricted in location than FRS2 (fetal NT, heart, stomach, liver and some adult tissues), and is expressed predominantly in the ventricular layer of the developing NT and brains of murine embryos.

Physical and biocompatibility properties of poly-epsilon-caprolactone produced using in situ polymerisation: a novel manufacturing technique for long-fibre composite materials.

Preliminary investigations into a novel process for the production of poly-epsilon-caprolactone (PCL) to be used as a matrix material in a bioabsorbable composite material are detailed. This material is primarily being developed as a bone substitute for use in maxillofacial reconstructive surgery, however, the technique described could be adapted to other areas where bioabsorbable composite materials may be used. The development of a totally bioabsorbable long-fibre composite material would allow a two-stage degradation to occur with the matrix material degrading first leaving a scaffold structure of degradable fibres which would be absorbed at a later stage. Caprolactone monomer was polymerised in situ within a tool cavity to produce a net shape moulding. Inclusion of a fibre preform within the tool cavity which was impregnated by the liquid monomer produces a long-fibre composite material. PCL with a range of molecular weights has been produced using this liquid moulding technique to assess the physical and biocompatibility properties compared to commercially available PCL. Osteoblast-like cells derived from human craniofacial bone (CFC) have been used to assess the in vitro biocompatibility of the PCL. The results show that high-quality PCL with a narrow molecular weight distribution and properties similar to commercially available PCL can be produced using this technique. Polymerisation of the monomer around a woven fibre preform made of a poly(lactic acid) (PLA)/poly(glycolic acid) (PGA) copolymer (vicryl mesh) produced a bioabsorbable long-fibre composite material. Further work is ongoing to develop this system towards a method for improving craniofacial bone reconstruction.

In situ pH measurements of the Syrian hamster uterus during early pregnancy to determine the role of pH in zona pellucida loss in vivo.

The mechanisms of zona pellucida (ZP) loss in peri-implantation hamster embryos in vivo versus in vitro are distinctly different. To investigate if ZP loss in vivo is the result of transient uterine pH changes, the luminal pH of the pregnant uterus was measured during the ZP loss period. Prior to ZP loss, pH was 7.30 +/- 0.05 (mean +/- SE; left uterine horn) and 7.35 +/- 0.03 (right horn). During ZP loss, pH was 7.26 +/- 0.07 (left) and 7.35 +/- 0.03 (right), and after embryo attachment, 7.25 +/- 0.02 (left) and 7.27 +/- 0.02 (right). None of these values are statistically different. The pseudopregnant uterine pH was 7.30 +/- 0.04 (left) and 7.31 +/- 0.04 (right), not statistically different from each other or from pregnant uteri. Blastocyst ZP loss in vitro (pH 3.0-8.5) occurred only at pH 3.0. Loss of ZP occurred in uterine flushings from pregnant or pseudopregnant hamsters, evidence that ZP loss is related to uterine factors. Complete ZP loss occurred at pH 6.8, but was incomplete at pH 6.6, 7.0 and 7.2. No ZP loss occurred in uterine flushings from non-mated females. In summary: (i) a change in uterine pH does not cause ZP loss in vivo in the Syrian hamster; (ii) a pH-sensitive factor in pregnant and pseudopregnant uterine fluid is responsible for ZP loss.

Sequences and expression patterns of alkaline phosphatase isozymes in preattachment bovine embryos and the adult bovine.

We report the cloning and partial sequences of two novel bovine tissue-specific alkaline phosphatase (AP) isozymes (TSAP2 and TSAP3) from in vitro-produced bovine blastocysts. Using a reverse-transcribed polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR)-based assay for mRNA expression and in vitro-produced preattachment bovine embryos, TSAP2 mRNA was detected first at the four-cell stage prior to the major burst of embryonic transcription in cattle and TSAP3 at the eight-cell stage with the major burst in transcription. Furthermore, the transcription of TSAP2 and TSAP3 displays a curious "on-off" pattern during early cleavages between 40 and 120 hr after insemination. Activity of bovine AP, measured by an azo-dye coupling technique, indicates that at least one AP isozyme is functional in oocytes and embryos throughout bovine preattachment development. However, maternal and embryonic-derived AP activity may have different cell-surface distributions. This novel expression pattern of the bovine AP isozymes could provide a useful tool for identifying and clarifying the events controlling transcription and gene expression during early embryo development.

Changes in the number of follicles and of oocytes in ovaries of prepubertal, peripubertal and mature bitches.

Ovaries were collected from prepubertal (< 6 months of age, n = 4 ovaries), peripubertal (6 to 10 months of age, n = 12 ovaries) and mature (> 10 months, n = 12 ovaries) bitches after routine ovariohysterectomies and fixed in formalin. Ovaries were bisected, embedded in paraffin wax and 20 serial sections were made at intervals of 10 microns. Sections were stained with haematoxylin and eosin to examine follicles and oocytes in a cross-section of cortex of known size. Counts were made on all sections, resulting in examination of the entire cortical area present in the sections. Oocytes were counted and classified as nucleate or anucleate. Follicles were counted and classified as large (> 100 microns in diameter) or small (< 100 microns in diameter), containing one oocyte (monovular), more than one oocyte (polyovular) or no oocytes (anovular). It was concluded that at first oestrus there was an increase (P < 0.05) per section in number of total oocytes and small monovular follicles and a significant increase (P < 0.05) in the number of nucleated oocytes in monovular follicles, suggesting that oogenesis or folliculogenesis is still occurring at this age. At pre- and peripubertal ages polyovular follicles were found which persist into maturity. There was no difference in numbers of anovular follicles and total number of polyovular follicles among different age groups.

Dieldrin toxicity in housed merino sheep.

An outbreak of nervous disease with deaths and reproductive failure was investigated in a fully housed flock of 640 super fine wool (Sharlea) Merino sheep. During the 4 months after the flock was dipped in dieldrin, 70 adult sheep died and no live lambs were produced by the ewes. The diagnosis of poisoning with dieldrin was based upon the presence of characteristic clinical signs, pathological findings and the detection of residues of dieldrin in tissues. Deficiency of vitamin A was confirmed in 2 sheep and may have contributed to the reproductive failure.

Residues in cattle grazed on land contaminated with heptachlor.

Heptachlor epoxide residues exceeding the maximum residue limit of 0.2 mg/kg have been found in fat of cattle grazed on land previously treated with heptachlor prior to planting potatoes or maize. To determine the residues accumulated in cattle exposed to contaminated land and the rate of decline on removal from the contamination, steers were grazed on a former potato paddock which had been treated the 2 previous years with heptachlor at 1.1 kg/ha. Soil residues in the paddock varied from a total of 0.42 mg/kg heptachlor and its epoxide at the beginning of the trial to 0.31 mg/kg after 16 months. Residues in the soil decreased only slightly down to a depth of 300 mm. Pasture residues were less than 0.02 mg/kg (wet basis). Heptachlor epoxide residues in the body fat of the steers increased during 19 months of exposure and reached a maximum of 0.72 mg/kg. In 4 steers removed after 14 weeks exposure, the heptachlor epoxide concentrations continued to increase from a mean of 0.24 mg/kg to a mean of 0.34 mg/kg after a further 4 weeks. Concentrations then fell progressively with a half life of 11 weeks in the body fat. There was an apparent relationship between pasture length and body fat residue, with residues increasing as pasture length decreased. The results of the experiments preclude the option of grazing cattle on pasture grown on soil treated with heptachlor for any extended period of time. It is possible that if short pastures and soft soil are avoided, and if cattle are not exposed to contaminated land for any more than 1 week in each month, then residues would remain below the maximum residue limit of 0.2mg/kg heptachlor.