Flow-mediated dilation is modified by exercise training status during childhood and adolescence: preliminary evidence of the youth athlete's artery.

Chronic exercise training is associated with an "athlete's artery" phenotype in young adults and an attenuated age-related decline in endothelium-dependent arterial function. Adolescence is associated with an influx of sex-specific hormones that may exert divergent effects on endothelial function, but whether training adaptations interact with biological maturation to produce a "youth athlete's artery" has not been explored. We investigated the influence of exercise-training status on endothelium-dependent arterial function during childhood and adolescence. Brachial artery flow-mediated dilation (FMD) was assessed in n = 102 exercise-trained (males, n = 25; females, n = 29) and untrained (males, n = 23; females, n = 25) youths, characterized as pre (males, n = 25; females, n = 26)- or post (males, n = 23; females, n = 28)-predicted age at peak height velocity (PHV). Baseline brachial artery diameter was larger in post- compared with pre-PHV youths (P ≤ 0.001), males compared with females (P ≤ 0.001), and trained compared with untrained youths (3.26 ± 0.51 vs. 3.11 ± 0.42 mm; P = 0.041). Brachial FMD was similar in pre- and post-PHV youths (P = 0.298), and males and females (P = 0.946). However, exercise-trained youths demonstrated higher FMD when compared with untrained counterparts (5.3 ± 3.3 vs. 3.0 ± 2.6%; P ≤ 0.001). Furthermore, brachial artery diameter (r2 = 0.142; P = 0.007 vs. r2 = 0.004; P = 0.652) and FMD (r2 = 0.138; P = 0.008 vs. r2 = 0.003; P = 0.706) were positively associated with cardiorespiratory fitness in post-, but not pre-PHV youths, respectively. Collectively, our data indicate that exercise training is associated with brachial artery remodeling and enhanced endothelial function during youth. However, arterial remodeling and endothelium-dependent function are only associated with elevated cardiorespiratory fitness during later stages of adolescence.NEW & NOTEWORTHY We report preliminary evidence of the "youth athlete's artery," characterized by training-related arterial remodeling and elevated endothelium-dependent arterial function in children and adolescents. However, training-related adaptations in brachial artery diameter and flow-mediated dilation (FMD) were associated with cardiorespiratory fitness in adolescents, but not in children. Our findings indicate that endothelium-dependent arterial function is modifiable with chronic exercise training during childhood, but the association between FMD and elevated cardiorespiratory fitness is only apparent during later stages of adolescence.

The influence of maturation and sex on intracranial blood velocities during exercise in children.

Cerebral blood velocity (CBv) increases in response to moderate exercise in humans, but the magnitude of change is smaller in children compared with postpubertal adolescents and adults. Whether sex differences exist in the anterior or posterior CBv response to exercise across pubertal development remains to be determined. We assessed middle cerebral artery (MCAv) and posterior cerebral artery (PCAv) blood velocity via transcranial Doppler in 38 prepubertal (18 males) and 48 postpubertal (23 males) with cerebrovascular and cardiorespiratory measures compared at baseline and ventilatory threshold. At baseline, MCAv was higher in both sexes pre- versus postpuberty. Females demonstrated a greater MCAv (P < 0.001) than their male counterparts (prepubertal females; 78 ± 11 cm·s-1 vs. prepubertal males; 72 ± 8 cm·s-1, and postpubertal females; 68 ± 10 cm·s-1 vs. postpubertal males; 62 ± 7 cm·s-1). During exercise, MCAv remained higher in postpubertal females versus males (81 ± 15 cm·s-1 vs. 73 ± 11 cm·s-1), but there were no differences in prepuberty. The relative increase in PCAv was greater in post- versus prepubertal females (51 ± 9 cm·s-1 vs. 45 ± 11 cm·s-1; P = 0.032) but was similar in males and females. Our findings suggest that biological sex alters anterior cerebral blood velocities at rest in both pre- and postpubertal youth, but the response to submaximal exercise is only influenced by sex postpuberty.NEW & NOTEWORTHY Cerebral blood velocity (CBv) in the anterior circulation was higher in females compared with males irrespective of maturational stage, but not in the posterior circulation. In response to exercise, females demonstrated a greater CBv compared with males, especially post-peak height velocity (post-PHV) where the CBv response to exercise was more pronounced. Our findings suggest that both CBv at rest and in response to acute submaximal exercise are altered by biological sex in a maturity-dependent manner.

Cerebral blood flow and cerebrovascular reactivity are modified by maturational stage and exercise training status during youth.

NEW FINDINGS: What is the central question of this study? Gonadal hormones modulate cerebrovascular function while insulin-like growth factor 1 (IGF-1) facilitates exercise-mediated cerebral angiogenesis; puberty is a critical period of neurodevelopment alongside elevated gonadal hormone and IGF-1 activity: but whether exercise training across puberty enhances cerebrovascular function is unkown. What is the main finding and its importance? Cerebral blood flow is elevated in endurance trained adolescent males when compared to untrained counterparts. However, cerebrovascular reactivity to hypercapnia is faster in trained vs. untrained children, but not adolescents. Exercise-induced improvements in cerebrovascular function are attainable as early as the first decade of life. ABSTRACT: Global cerebral blood flow (gCBF) and cerebrovascular reactivity to hypercapnia ( CV R C O 2 ${\mathrm{CV}}{{\mathrm{R}}_{{\mathrm{C}}{{\mathrm{O}}_{\mathrm{2}}}}}$ ) are modulated by gonadal hormone activity, while insulin-like growth factor 1 facilitates exercise-mediated cerebral angiogenesis in adults. Whether critical periods of heightened hormonal and neural development during puberty represent an opportunity to further enhance gCBF and CV R C O 2 ${\mathrm{CV}}{{\mathrm{R}}_{{\mathrm{C}}{{\mathrm{O}}_{\mathrm{2}}}}}$ is currently unknown. Therefore, we used duplex ultrasound to assess gCBF and CV R C O 2 ${\mathrm{CV}}{{\mathrm{R}}_{{\mathrm{C}}{{\mathrm{O}}_{\mathrm{2}}}}}$ in n = 128 adolescents characterised as endurance-exercise trained (males: n = 30, females: n = 36) or untrained (males: n = 29, females: n = 33). Participants were further categorised as pre- (males: n = 35, females: n = 33) or post- (males: n = 24, females: n = 36) peak height velocity (PHV) to determine pubertal or 'maturity' status. Three-factor ANOVA was used to identify main and interaction effects of maturity status, biological sex and training status on gCBF and CV R C O 2 ${\mathrm{CV}}{{\mathrm{R}}_{{\mathrm{C}}{{\mathrm{O}}_{\mathrm{2}}}}}$ . Data are reported as group means (SD). Pre-PHV youth demonstrated elevated gCBF and slower CV R C O 2 ${\mathrm{CV}}{{\mathrm{R}}_{{\mathrm{C}}{{\mathrm{O}}_{\mathrm{2}}}}}$ mean response times than post-PHV counterparts (both: P ≤ 0.001). gCBF was only elevated in post-PHV trained males when compared to untrained counterparts (634 (43) vs. 578 (46) ml min-1 ; P = 0.007). However, CV R C O 2 ${\mathrm{CV}}{{\mathrm{R}}_{{\mathrm{C}}{{\mathrm{O}}_{\mathrm{2}}}}}$ mean response time was faster in pre- (72 (20) vs. 95 (29) s; P ≤ 0.001), but not post-PHV (P = 0.721) trained youth when compared to untrained counterparts. Cardiorespiratory fitness was associated with gCBF in post-PHV youth (r2  = 0.19; P ≤ 0.001) and CV R C O 2 ${\mathrm{CV}}{{\mathrm{R}}_{{\mathrm{C}}{{\mathrm{O}}_{\mathrm{2}}}}}$ mean response time in pre-PHV youth (r2  = 0.13; P = 0.014). Higher cardiorespiratory fitness during adolescence can elevate gCBF while exercise training during childhood primes the development of cerebrovascular function, highlighting the importance of exercise training during the early stages of life in shaping the cerebrovascular phenotype.

Exercise breaks prevent attenuation in cerebrovascular function following an acute bout of uninterrupted sitting in healthy children.

The purpose of this study was to examine the effect of an acute bout of prolonged sitting with and without exercise breaks on cerebrovascular function in 7- to 13-year-old children. Forty-two children and adolescents were recruited to a crossover trial, with 15 girls (mean age 10.1 ± 2.5 years) and 16 boys (mean age 10.5 ± 1.3 years) completing the two trial conditions: SIT, uninterrupted sitting for 3 h and CYCLE, 3 h of sitting interrupted hourly with a 10-min moderate intensity exercise break. Cerebrovascular function was measured Pre and Post SIT and CYCLE from blood flow ( Q ̇ ${\dot{Q}}$ ), diameter, and shear rate of the internal carotid artery (ICA) at rest and in response to CO2 . Blood velocity in the middle (MCA) and posterior (PCA) cerebral arteries was assessed at rest, during a neurovascular coupling task (NVC) and in response to CO2 . We demonstrate that SIT but not CYCLE reduced ICA cerebrovascular reactivity to CO2 (%Δ ICA Q ̇ ${\dot{Q}}$ /Δ end-tidal CO2 : SIT: Pre 5.0 ± 2.4%/mmHg to Post 3.3 ± 2.8%/mmHg vs. CYCLE: Pre 4.4 ± 2.3%/mmHg to Post 5.3 ± 3.4%/mmHg, P = 0.05) and slowed the MCA blood velocity onset response time to hypercapnia (SIT: Pre 57.2 ± 32.6 s to Post 76.6 ± 55.2 s, vs. CYCLE: Pre 64.1 ± 40.4 s to Post 52.3 ± 28.8 s, P = 0.05). There were no changes in NVC. Importantly, breaking up prolonged sitting with hourly exercise breaks prevented the reductions in cerebrovascular reactivity to CO2 and the slowed intracranial blood velocity onset response time to hypercapnia apparent with uninterrupted sitting in children. NEW FINDINGS: What is the central question of this study? What are the effects of interrupting prolonged sitting on cerebrovascular function in children? What is the main finding and its importance? Prolonged sitting results in declines in cerebrovascular reactivity, a valuable index of cerebrovascular health. Breaking up prolonged sitting with hourly 10 min exercise breaks prevented these changes. These initial findings suggest excessive sedentary behaviour does impact cerebrovascular function in childhood, but taking exercise breaks prevents declines.

Neurovascular coupling and cerebrovascular hemodynamics are modified by exercise training status at different stages of maturation during youth.

Neurovascular coupling (NVC) is mediated via nitric oxide signaling, which is independently influenced by sex hormones and exercise training. Whether exercise training differentially modifies NVC pre- versus postpuberty, where levels of circulating sex hormones will differ greatly within and between sexes, remains to be determined. Therefore, we investigated the influence of exercise training status on resting intracranial hemodynamics and NVC at different stages of maturation. Posterior and middle cerebral artery velocities (PCAv and MCAv) and pulsatility index (PCAPI and MCAPI) were assessed via transcranial Doppler ultrasound at rest and during visual NVC stimuli. N = 121 exercise-trained (males, n = 32; females, n = 32) and untrained (males, n = 28; females, n = 29) participants were characterized as pre (males, n = 33; females, n = 29)- or post (males, n = 27; females, n = 32)-peak height velocity (PHV). Exercise-trained youth demonstrated higher resting MCAv (P = 0.010). Maturity and training status did not affect the ΔPCAv and ΔMCAv during NVC. However, pre-PHV untrained males (19.4 ± 13.5 vs. 6.8 ± 6.0%; P ≤ 0.001) and females (19.3 ± 10.8 vs. 6.4 ± 7.1%; P ≤ 0.001) had a higher ΔPCAPI during NVC than post-PHV untrained counterparts, whereas the ΔPCAPI was similar in pre- and post-PHV trained youth. Pre-PHV untrained males (19.4 ± 13.5 vs. 7.9 ± 6.0%; P ≤ 0.001) and females (19.3 ± 10.8 vs. 11.1 ± 7.3%; P = 0.016) also had a larger ΔPCAPI than their pre-PHV trained counterparts during NVC, but the ΔPCAPI was similar in trained and untrained post-PHV youth. Collectively, our data indicate that exercise training elevates regional cerebral blood velocities during youth, but training-mediated adaptations in NVC are only attainable during early stages of adolescence. Therefore, childhood provides a unique opportunity for exercise-mediated adaptations in NVC.NEW & NOTEWORTHY We report that the change in cerebral blood velocity during a neurovascular coupling task (NVC) is similar in pre- and postpubertal youth, regardless of exercise-training status. However, prepubertal untrained youth demonstrated a greater increase in cerebral blood pulsatility during the NVC task when compared with their trained counterparts. Our findings highlight that childhood represents a unique opportunity for exercise-mediated adaptations in cerebrovascular hemodynamics during NVC, which may confer long-term benefits in cerebrovascular function.

Dynamic onset response of the internal carotid artery to hypercapnia is blunted in children compared with adults.

Intracranial blood velocity reactivity to a steady-state hypercapnic stimulus has been shown to be similar in children and adults, but the onset response to hypercapnia is slower in the child. Given the vasodilatory effect of hypercapnia on the cerebrovasculature, assessment of vessel diameter, and blood flow are vital to fully elucidate whether the temporal hypercapnic response differs in children versus adults. Assessment of internal carotid artery (ICA) vessel diameter (ICAd), blood velocity (ICAv), volumetric blood flow (QICA ), and shear rate (ICASR ) in response to a 4 min hypercapnic challenge was completed in children (n = 14, 8 girls; 9.8 ± 0.7 years) and adults (n = 17, 7 females; 24.7 ± 1.8 years). The dynamic onset responses of partial pressure of end-tidal CO2 (PET CO2 ), QICA , ICAv, and ICASR to hypercapnia were modeled, and mean response time (MRT) was computed. Following 4 min of hypercapnia, ICA reactivity and ICAd were comparable between the groups. Despite a similar MRT in PET CO2 in children and adults, children had slower QICA (children 108 ± 60 s vs. adults 66 ± 37 s; p = 0.023), ICAv (children 120 ± 52 s vs. adults 52 ± 31 s; p = 0.001), and ICASR (children 90 ± 27 s vs. adults 47 ± 36 s; p = 0.001) MRTs compared with adults. This is the first study to show slower hypercapnic hyperemic kinetic responses of the ICA in children. The mechanisms determining these differences and the need to consider the duration of hypercapnic exposure when assessing CVR in children should be considered in future studies.

The influence of sex and maturation on carotid and vertebral artery hemodynamics and associations with free-living (in)activity in 6-17-year-olds.

We explored the influence of sex and maturation on resting cervical artery hemodynamics (common carotid artery, CCA; internal carotid artery, ICA; and vertebral artery, VA), free-living physical activity, and sedentary behavior in children 6-17 yr of age. In addition, we investigated the relationship between physical activity, sedentary behavior, and cervical artery hemodynamics. Seventy-eight children and adolescents, girls (n = 42; mean age, 11.4 ± 2.5 yr) and boys (n = 36; mean age, 11.0 ± 2.6 yr), completed anthropometric measures, duplex ultrasound assessment of the cervical arteries, and wore an activPAL accelerometer to assess physical activity (indexed by steps/day) and sedentary behavior for 7 days. The ICA and VA diameters were similar between prepubertal and pubertal groups, as was volumetric blood flow (Q); however, the CCA diameter was significantly larger in the pubertal group (P < 0.05). Boys were found to have larger diameters in all cervical arteries than girls, as well as higher QCCA, QICA, and global cerebral blood flow (P < 0.05). The pubertal group was more sedentary (100 min/day more; P < 0.05) and took 3,500 fewer steps/day than the prepubertal group (P < 0.05). Shear rate (SR) and Q of the cervical arteries showed no relationship to physical activity or prolonged bouts of sedentary behavior; however, a significant negative relationship was apparent between total sedentary time and internal carotid artery shear rate (ICASR) after covarying for steps/day and maturation (P < 0.05). These findings provide novel insight into the potential influence sedentary behavior may have on cerebrovascular blood flow in healthy girls and boys.NEW & NOTEWORTHY Cerebral blood flow is known to change with age; however, assessing these age-related changes is complex and requires consideration of pubertal status. This, to our knowledge, is the first study to investigate the influence of sex and maturation on resting cervical artery hemodynamics and subsequently explore associations with physical activity and sedentary behavior in healthy children and adolescents. Our findings suggest that habitual sedentary behavior may influence cervical artery hemodynamics in youth, independent of physical activity, maturation, and sex.

The influence of age and sex on cerebrovascular reactivity and ventilatory response to hypercapnia in children and adults.

NEW FINDINGS: What is the central question of this study? In this study, we investigated intracranial cerebrovascular and ventilatory reactivity to 6% CO2 in children and adults and explored dynamic ventilatory and cerebrovascular onset responses. What is the main finding and its importance? We showed that cerebrovascular reactivity was similar in children and adults, but the intracranial blood velocity onset response was markedly attenuated in children. Sex differences were apparent, with greater increases in intracranial blood velocity in females and lower ventilatory reactivity in adult females. Our study confirms the importance of investigating dynamic onset responses when assessing the influence of development on cerebrovascular regulation. ABSTRACT: The purpose of this study was to compare the integrated intracranial cerebrovascular reactivity (CVR) and hypercapnic ventilatory response between children and adults and to explore the dynamic response of the middle cerebral artery mean velocity (MCAV ). Children (n = 20; 9.9 ± 0.7 years of age) and adults (n = 21; 24.4 ± 2.0 years of age) completed assessment of CVR over 240 s using a fixed fraction of inspired CO2 (0.06). Baseline MCAV was higher in the adult females compared with the males (P ≤ 0.05). The MCAV was greater in female children compared with male children (P ≤ 0.05) and in female adults compared with male adults (P ≤ 0.05) with hypercapnia. Relative CVR was similar in children and adults (3.71 ± 1.06 versus 4.12 ± 1.32% mmHg-1 ; P = 0.098), with absolute CVR being higher in adult females than males (3.27 ± 0.86 versus 2.53 ± 0.70 cm s-1  mmHg-1 ; P ≤ 0.001). Likewise, the hypercapnic ventilatory response did not differ between the children and adults (1.89 ± 1.00 versus 1.77 ± 1.34 l min-1  mmHg-1 ; P = 0.597), but was lower in adult females than males (1.815 ± 0.37 versus 2.33 ± 1.66 l min-1  mmHg-1 ; P ≤ 0.05). The heart rate response to hypercapnia was greater in children than in adults (P = 0.001). A monoexponential regression model was used to characterize the dynamic onset, consisting of a delay term, amplitude and time constant (τ). The results revealed that MCAV τ was faster in adults than in children (34 ± 18 versus 74 ± 28 s; P = 0.001). Our study provides new insight into the impact of age and sex on CVR and the dynamic response of the MCAV to hypercapnia.

Objectively Measured Aerobic Fitness is Not Related to Vascular Health Outcomes and Cardiovascular Disease Risk In 9-10 Year Old Children.

The purpose of the study was to examine whether a higher aerobic fitness in 9-10 year old children is related to superior macro and microvascular health and cardiovascular disease (CVD) risk. Ninety-six 9-10 year olds (53 boys) completed the study. Body composition was assessed from air displacement plethysmography and magnetic resonance imaging. Peak oxygen uptake (V̇O2) was assessed from a ramp-incremental cycling exercise test. Macrovascular outcomes were assessed from pulse wave analysis and pulse wave velocity (PWV) using applanation tonometry. Microvascular function was assessed from the functional microvascular reserve and skin erythrocyte flux after iontophoretic application of skin vasodilators. Assessment of CVD risk was assessed via body mass index, total body fat percentage and visceral adipose tissue, glucose, triglyceride, total cholesterol, HDL cholesterol and LDL cholesterol, while insulin resistance was calculated using Homeostatic model assessment. Aerobic fitness groups (higher vs lower) were calculated from V̇O2 peak scaled for body mass (mL·kg-0.61·min-1) and fat free mass (mL·FFM-1·min-1). Children with a higher V̇O2 peak scaled for body mass had a greater carotid to ankle PWV compared to those with lower aerobic fitness (mean ± SD: 6.08 ± 0.47 vs. 5.87 ± 0.43 m·s-1; p = 0.039), although this became non-significant when scaled for FFM (p = 0.56). No other mean differences in vascular or CVD risk health markers were present between higher and lower groups of aerobic fitness when scaled for body mass or FFM. Conclusion: Directly assessed aerobic fitness is not related to macro and microvascular health outcomes or CVD risk markers in 9-10 year olds.

The Impact of Different Exercise Intensities on Vasodilation and Shear Rate Patterns in Children.

PURPOSE: The effect of exercise intensity on vasodilator function is poorly understood in children. The authors compared the acute effect of high-intensity interval exercise (HIIE) with moderate-intensity steady-state exercise (MISS) on postexercise vasodilation and shear patterns in 7- to 12- year-old children. METHODS: Superficial femoral artery diameter, shear rates, and flow-mediated dilation were measured pre, immediately following (post), and 1 hour after (post60) HIIE (six 1-min sprints at 90% peak power [Wmax], with 1-min recovery) and MISS (15 min at 44% Wmax). RESULTS: Baseline superficial femoral artery diameter increased similarly following both HIIE (pre 4.23 [0.41] mm, post 4.73 [0.56] mm) and MISS (pre 4.28 [0.56] mm, post 4.59 [0.64] mm), returning to preexercise values post60. Blood flow and antegrade shear rate were increased post HIIE and MISS, but to a greater extent, post HIIE (P < .05). Retrograde shear rate was attenuated post both exercise conditions and remained post60 (P < .001). There was a decline in flow-mediated dilation postexercise (HIIE Δ -2.9%; MISS Δ -2.4%), which was no longer apparent when corrected for baseline diameter. CONCLUSION: Acute bouts of external work-matched HIIE or MISS exert a similar impact on shear-mediated conduit artery vasodilation and flow-mediated dilation in children, and this is reversed 1 hour after exercise.

Appropriate scaling approach for evaluating peak VO2 development in Southern Chinese 8 to 16 years old.

OBJECTIVE: To investigate scaling approaches for evaluating the development of peak VO2 and improving the identification of low cardiopulmonary fitness in Southern Chinese children and adolescents. METHODS: Nine hundred and twenty Chinese children and adolescents (8 to 16 years) underwent graded cardiopulmonary exercise test on a treadmill until volitional exhaustion. Peak VO2 was corrected for the effects of body mass by ratio or allometric scaling. Z score equations for predicting peak VO2 were developed. Correlations between scaled peak VO2, z scores, body size and age were tested to examine the effectiveness of the approach. RESULTS: Eight hundred and fifty-two participants (48% male) were included in the analyses. Absolute peak VO2 significantly increased with age in both sexes (both P<0.05), while ratio-scaled peak VO2 increased only in males (P<0.05). Allometrically scaled peak VO2 increased from 11 years in both sexes, plateauing by 12 years in girls and continuing to rise until 15 years in boys. Allometically scaled peak VO2 was not correlated with body mass, but remained correlated with height and age in all but the older girls. Peak VO2 z score was not correlated with body mass, height or age. CONCLUSIONS: Absolute and allometric scaled peak VO2 values are provided for Hong Kong Chinese children and adolescents by age and sex. Peak VO2 z scores improve the evaluation of cardiopulmonary fitness, allowing comparisons across ages and sex and will likely provide a better metric for tracking change over time in children and adolescents, regardless of body size and age.

UBC-Nepal Expedition: Cerebrovascular Responses to Exercise in Sherpa Children Residing at High Altitude.

Understanding the process of successful adaptation to high altitude provides valuable insight into the pathogenesis of conditions associated with impaired oxygen uptake and utilization. Prepubertal children residing at low altitude show a reduced cerebrovascular response to exercise in comparison to adults, and a transient uncoupling of cerebral blood flow to changes in the partial pressure of end-tidal CO2 (PETCO2); however, little is known about the cerebrovascular response to exercise in high-altitude native children. We sought to compare the cerebral hemodynamic response to acute exercise between prepubertal children residing at high and low altitude. Prepubertal children (n = 32; 17 female) of Sherpa descent (Sherpa children [SC]) at high altitude (3800 m, Nepal) and maturational-matched (n = 32; 20 female) children (lowland children [LLC]) residing at low altitude (342 m, Canada). Ventilation, peripheral oxygen saturation (SpO2), PETCO2, and blood velocity in the middle and posterior cerebral arteries (MCAv and PCAv) were continuously measured during a graded cycling exercise test to exhaustion. At baseline (BL), PETCO2 (-19 ± 4 mmHg, p < 0.001), SpO2 (-6.0% ± 2.1%, p < 0.001), MCAv (-12% ± 5%, p = 0.02), and PCAv (-12% ± 6%, p = 0.04) were lower in SC when compared with LLC. Despite this, the relative change in MCAv and PCAv during exercise was similar between the two groups (p = 0.99). Linear regression analysis demonstrated a positive relationship between changes in PETCO2 with MCAv in SC (R2 = 0.13, p > 0.001), but not in LLC (R2 = 0.03, p = 0.10). Our findings demonstrate a similar increase in intra-cranial perfusion during exercise in prepubertal SC, despite differential BL values and changes in PETCO2 and SpO2.

UBC-Nepal Expedition: An experimental overview of the 2016 University of British Columbia Scientific Expedition to Nepal Himalaya.

The University of British Columbia Nepal Expedition took place over several months in the fall of 2016 and was comprised of an international team of 37 researchers. This paper describes the objectives, study characteristics, organization and management of this expedition, and presents novel blood gas data during acclimatization in both lowlanders and Sherpa. An overview and framework for the forthcoming publications is provided. The expedition conducted 17 major studies with two principal goals-to identify physiological differences in: 1) acclimatization; and 2) responses to sustained high-altitude exposure between lowland natives and people of Tibetan descent. We performed observational cohort studies of human responses to progressive hypobaric hypoxia (during ascent), and to sustained exposure to 5050 m over 3 weeks comparing lowlander adults (n = 30) with Sherpa adults (n = 24). Sherpa were tested both with (n = 12) and without (n = 12) descent to Kathmandu. Data collected from lowlander children (n = 30) in Canada were compared with those collected from Sherpa children (n = 57; 3400-3900m). Studies were conducted in Canada (344m) and the following locations in Nepal: Kathmandu (1400m), Namche Bazaar (3440m), Kunde Hospital (3480m), Pheriche (4371m) and the Ev-K2-CNR Research Pyramid Laboratory (5050m). The core studies focused on the mechanisms of cerebral blood flow regulation, the role of iron in cardiopulmonary regulation, pulmonary pressures, intra-ocular pressures, cardiac function, neuromuscular fatigue and function, blood volume regulation, autonomic control, and micro and macro vascular function. A total of 335 study sessions were conducted over three weeks at 5050m. In addition to an overview of this expedition and arterial blood gas data from Sherpa, suggestions for scientists aiming to perform field-based altitude research are also presented. Together, these findings will contribute to our understanding of human acclimatization and adaptation to the stress of residence at high-altitude.

Cerebrovascular and ventilatory responses to acute normobaric hypoxia in girls and women.

Physiological responses to hypoxia in children are incompletely understood. We aimed to characterize cerebrovascular and ventilatory responses to normobaric hypoxia in girls and women. Ten healthy girls (9.9 ± 1.7 years; mean ± SD; Tanner stage 1 and 2) and their mothers (43.9 ± 3.5 years) participated. Internal carotid (ICA) and vertebral artery (VA) velocity, diameter and flow (Duplex ultrasound) was recorded pre- and post-1 h of hypoxic exposure (FIO2 = 0.126;~4000 m) in a normobaric chamber. Ventilation (V˙E) and respiratory drive (VT/TI) expressed as delta change from baseline (∆%), and end-tidal carbon-dioxide (PETCO2) were collected at baseline (BL) and 5, 30 and 60 min of hypoxia (5/30/60 HYP). Heart rate (HR) and oxygen saturation (SpO2) were also collected at these time-points. SpO2 declined similarly in girls (BL-97%; 60HYP-80%, P < 0.05) and women (BL-97%; 60HYP-83%, P < 0.05). Global cerebral blood flow (gCBF) increased in both girls (BL-687; 60HYP-912 mL·min-1, P < 0.05) and women (BL-472; 60HYP-651 mL·min-1, P < 0.01), though the ratio of ICA:VA (%) contribution to gCBF differed significantly (girls, 75:25%; women, 61:39%). The relative increase in V˙E peaked at 30HYP in both girls (27%, P < 0.05) and women (19%, P < 0.05), as did ∆%VT/TI (girls, 41%; women, 27%, P's < 0.05). Tidal volume (VT) increased in both girls and women at 5HYP, remaining elevated above baseline in girls at 30 and 60 HYP, but declined back toward baseline in women. Girls elicit similar increases in gCBF and ventilatory parameters in response to acute hypoxia as women, though the pattern and contributions mediating these responses appear developmentally divergent.

UBC-Nepal expedition: markedly lower cerebral blood flow in high-altitude Sherpa children compared with children residing at sea level.

Developmental cerebral hemodynamic adaptations to chronic high-altitude exposure, such as in the Sherpa population, are largely unknown. To examine hemodynamic adaptations in the developing human brain, we assessed common carotid (CCA), internal carotid (ICA), and vertebral artery (VA) flow and middle cerebral artery (MCA) velocity in 25 (9.6 ± 1.0 yr old, 129 ± 9 cm, 27 ± 8 kg, 14 girls) Sherpa children (3,800 m, Nepal) and 25 (9.9 ± 0.7 yr old, 143 ± 7 cm, 34 ± 6 kg, 14 girls) age-matched sea level children (344 m, Canada) during supine rest. Resting gas exchange, blood pressure, oxygen saturation and heart rate were assessed. Despite comparable age, height and weight were lower (both P < 0.01) in Sherpa compared with sea level children. Mean arterial pressure, heart rate, and ventilation were similar, whereas oxygen saturation (95 ± 2 vs. 99 ± 1%, P < 0.01) and end-tidal Pco2 (24 ± 3 vs. 36 ± 3 Torr, P < 0.01) were lower in Sherpa children. Global cerebral blood flow was ∼30% lower in Sherpa compared with sea level children. This was reflected in a lower ICA flow (283 ± 108 vs. 333 ± 56 ml/min, P = 0.05), VA flow (78 ± 26 vs. 118 ± 35 ml/min, P < 0.05), and MCA velocity (72 ± 14 vs. 88 ± 14 cm/s, P < 0.01). CCA flow was similar between Sherpa and sea level children (425 ± 92 vs. 441 ± 81 ml/min, P = 0.52). Scaling flow and oxygen uptake for differences in vessel diameter and body size, respectively, led to the same findings. A lower cerebral blood flow in Sherpa children may reflect specific cerebral hemodynamic adaptations to chronic hypoxia.NEW & NOTEWORTHY Cerebral blood flow is lower in Sherpa children compared with children residing at sea level; this may reflect a cerebral hemodynamic pattern, potentially due to adaptation to a hypoxic environment.

Anterior cerebral blood velocity and end-tidal CO2 responses to exercise differ in children and adults.

Little is known about the response of the cerebrovasculature to acute exercise in children and how these responses might differ with adults. Therefore, we compared changes in middle cerebral artery blood velocity (MCAVmean), end-tidal Pco2 ([Formula: see text]), blood pressure, and minute ventilation (V̇e) in response to incremental exercise between children and adults. Thirteen children [age: 9 ± 1 (SD) yr] and thirteen sex-matched adults (age: 25 ± 4 yr) completed a maximal exercise test, during which MCAVmean, [Formula: see text], and V̇e were measured continuously. These variables were measured at rest, at exercise intensities specific to individual ventilatory thresholds, and at maximum. Although MCAVmean was higher at rest in children compared with adults, there were smaller increases in children (1-12%) compared with adults (12-25%) at all exercise intensities. There were alterations in [Formula: see text] with exercise intensity in an age-dependent manner [F(2.5,54.5) = 7.983, P < 0.001; η2 = 0.266], remaining stable in children with increasing exercise intensity (37-39 mmHg; P > 0.05) until hyperventilation-induced reductions following the respiratory compensation point. In adults, [Formula: see text] increased with exercise intensity (36-45 mmHg, P < 0.05) until the ventilatory threshold. From the ventilatory threshold to maximum, adults showed a greater hyperventilation-induced hypocapnia than children. These findings show that the relative increase in MCAVmean during exercise was attenuated in children compared with adults. There was also a weaker relationship between MCAVmean and [Formula: see text] during exercise in children, suggesting that cerebral perfusion may be regulated by different mechanisms during exercise in the child.NEW & NOTEWORTHY These findings provide the first direct evidence that exercise increases cerebral blood flow in children to a lesser extent than in adults. Changes in end-tidal CO2 parallel changes in cerebral perfusion in adults but not in children, suggesting age-dependent regulatory mechanisms of cerebral blood flow during exercise.

Impact of prolonged sitting on vascular function in young girls.

NEW FINDINGS: What is the central question of this study? Children are spending more than 60% of their waking day sedentary. The consequences of excessive sedentary behaviour are not well understood in the child, but there is growing evidence that with increasing sedentary time, cardiovascular risk in childhood also increases. What is the main finding and its importance? Our findings show that a 3 h period of uninterrupted sitting causes a profound (33%) reduction in vascular function in young girls. Importantly, we also demonstrate that breaking up sitting with regular exercise breaks can prevent this. Excessive sedentary behaviour has serious clinical and public health implications; however, the physiological changes that accompany prolonged sitting in the child are not completely understood. Herein, we examined the acute effect a prolonged period of sitting has upon superficial femoral artery function in 7- to 10-year-old girls and the impact of interrupting prolonged sitting with exercise breaks. Superficial femoral artery endothelium-dependent flow-mediated dilatation, total shear rate, anterograde and retrograde shear rates and oscillatory shear index were assessed before and after two experimental conditions: a 3 h uninterrupted period of sitting (SIT) and a 3 h period of sitting interrupted each hour with 10 min of moderate-intensity exercise (EX). A mixed-model analysis of variance was used to compare between-condition and within-condition main effects, controlling for the within-subject nature of the experiment by including random effects for participant. Superficial femoral artery endothelium-dependent flow-mediated dilatation decreased significantly from pre- to post-SIT (mean difference 2.2% flow-mediated dilatation; 95% confidence interval = 0.60-2.94%, P < 0.001). This relative decline of 33% was abolished in the EX intervention. Shear rates were not significantly different within conditions. Our data demonstrate the effectiveness of short but regular exercise breaks in offsetting the detrimental effects of uninterrupted sitting in young girls.