Hydrophobic residues in S1 modulate enzymatic function and voltage sensing in voltage-sensing phosphatase.

The voltage-sensing domain (VSD) is a four-helix modular protein domain that converts electrical signals into conformational changes, leading to open pores and active enzymes. In most voltage-sensing proteins, the VSDs do not interact with one another, and the S1-S3 helices are considered mainly scaffolding, except in the voltage-sensing phosphatase (VSP) and the proton channel (Hv). To investigate its contribution to VSP function, we mutated four hydrophobic amino acids in S1 to alanine (F127, I131, I134, and L137), individually or in combination. Most of these mutations shifted the voltage dependence of activity to higher voltages; however, not all substrate reactions were the same. The kinetics of enzymatic activity were also altered, with some mutations significantly slowing down dephosphorylation. The voltage dependence of VSD motions was consistently shifted to lower voltages and indicated a second voltage-dependent motion. Additionally, none of the mutations broke the VSP dimer, indicating that the S1 impact could stem from intra- and/or intersubunit interactions. Lastly, when the same mutations were introduced into a genetically encoded voltage indicator, they dramatically altered the optical readings, making some of the kinetics faster and shifting the voltage dependence. These results indicate that the S1 helix in VSP plays a critical role in tuning the enzyme's conformational response to membrane potential transients and influencing the function of the VSD.

S1 hydrophobic residues modulate voltage sensing phosphatase enzymatic function and voltage sensing.

The voltage sensing domain (VSD) is a four-helix modular protein domain that converts electrical signals into conformational changes, leading to open pores and active enzymes. In most voltage sensing proteins, the VSDs do not interact with one another and the S1-S3 helices are considered mainly as scaffolding. The two exceptions are the voltage sensing phosphatase (VSP) and the proton channel (Hv). VSP is a voltage-regulated enzyme and Hvs are channels that only have VSDs. To investigate the S1 contribution to VSP function, we individually mutated four hydrophobic amino acids in S1 to alanine (F127, I131, I134 and L137). We also combined these mutations to generate quadruple mutation designated S1-Q. Most of these mutations shifted the voltage dependence of activity to higher voltages though interestingly, not all substrate reactions were the same. The kinetics of enzymatic activity were also altered with some mutations significantly slowing down dephosphorylation. The voltage dependence of VSD motions were consistently shifted to lower voltages and indicated a second voltage dependent motion. Co-immunoprecipitation demonstrated that none of the mutations broke the VSP dimer indicating that the S1 impact could stem from intrasubunit and/or intersubunit interactions. Lastly, when the same alanine mutations were introduced into a genetically encoded voltage indicator, they dramatically altered the optical readings, making some of the kinetics faster and shifting the voltage dependence. These results indicate that the S1 helix in VSP plays a critical role in tuning the enzymes conformational response to membrane potential transients and influencing the function of the VSD.

Reduction of retinal ganglion cell death in mouse models of familial dysautonomia using AAV-mediated gene therapy and splicing modulators.

Familial dysautonomia (FD) is a rare neurodevelopmental and neurodegenerative disease caused by a splicing mutation in the Elongator Acetyltransferase Complex Subunit 1 (ELP1) gene. The reduction in ELP1 mRNA and protein leads to the death of retinal ganglion cells (RGCs) and visual impairment in all FD patients. Currently patient symptoms are managed, but there is no treatment for the disease. We sought to test the hypothesis that restoring levels of Elp1 would thwart the death of RGCs in FD. To this end, we tested the effectiveness of two therapeutic strategies for rescuing RGCs. Here we provide proof-of-concept data that gene replacement therapy and small molecule splicing modifiers effectively reduce the death of RGCs in mouse models for FD and provide pre-clinical foundational data for translation to FD patients.

Reduction of retinal ganglion cell death in mouse models of familial dysautonomia using AAV-mediated gene therapy and splicing modulators.

Familial dysautonomia (FD) is a rare neurodevelopmental and neurodegenerative disease caused by a splicing mutation in the Elongator Acetyltransferase Complex Subunit 1 ( ELP1 ) gene. The reduction in ELP1 mRNA and protein leads to the death of retinal ganglion cells (RGCs) and visual impairment in all FD patients. Currently, patient symptoms are managed, but there is no treatment for the disease. We sought to test the hypothesis that restoring levels of Elp1 would thwart the death of RGCs in FD. To this end, we tested the effectiveness of two therapeutic strategies for rescuing RGCs. Here we provide proof-of-concept data that gene replacement therapy and small molecule splicing modifiers effectively reduce the death of RGCs in mouse models for FD and provide pre-clinical data foundation for translation to FD patients.

Controlled Modular Multivalent Presentation of the CD40 Ligand on P22 Virus-like Particles Leads to Tunable Amplification of CD40 Signaling.

Ligands of the tumor necrosis factor superfamily (TNFSF) are appealing targets for immunotherapy research due to their integral involvement in stimulation or restriction of immune responses. TNFSF-targeted therapies are currently being developed to combat immunologically based diseases and cancer. A crucial determinant of effective TNFSF receptor binding and signaling is the trimeric quaternary structure of the ligand. Additionally, ligand multivalency is essential to propagate strong signaling in effector cells. Thus, designing a synthetic platform to display trimeric TNFSF ligands in a multivalent manner is necessary to further the understanding of ligand-receptor interactions. Viral nanocages have architectures that are amenable to genetic and chemical modifications of both their interior and exterior surfaces. Notably, the exterior surface of virus-like particles can be utilized as a platform for the modular multivalent presentation of target proteins. In this study, we build on previous efforts exploring the bacteriophage P22 virus-like particle for the exterior multivalent modular display of a potent immune-stimulating TNFSF protein, CD40 ligand (CD40L). Using a cell-based reporter system, we quantify the effects of tunable avidity on CD40 signaling by CD40L displayed on the surface of P22 nanocages. Multivalent presentation of CD40L resulted in a 53.6-fold decrease of the half maximal effective concentration (EC50) compared to free CD40L, indicating higher potency. Our results emphasize the power of using P22-based biomimetics to study ligand-receptor interactions within their proper structural context, which may contribute to the development of effective immune modulators.

Structure Reveals a Mechanism of CRISPR-RNA-Guided Nuclease Recruitment and Anti-CRISPR Viral Mimicry.

Bacteria and archaea have evolved sophisticated adaptive immune systems that rely on CRISPR RNA (crRNA)-guided detection and nuclease-mediated elimination of invading nucleic acids. Here, we present the cryo-electron microscopy (cryo-EM) structure of the type I-F crRNA-guided surveillance complex (Csy complex) from Pseudomonas aeruginosa bound to a double-stranded DNA target. Comparison of this structure to previously determined structures of this complex reveals a ∼180-degree rotation of the C-terminal helical bundle on the "large" Cas8f subunit. We show that the double-stranded DNA (dsDNA)-induced conformational change in Cas8f exposes a Cas2/3 "nuclease recruitment helix" that is structurally homologous to a virally encoded anti-CRISPR protein (AcrIF3). Structural homology between Cas8f and AcrIF3 suggests that AcrIF3 is a mimic of the Cas8f nuclease recruitment helix.

CD177-mediated nanoparticle targeting of human and mouse neutrophils.

Neutrophils are the most abundant white blood cells, with a vital role in innate immune defense against bacterial and fungal pathogens. Although mostly associated with pathological processes directly related to immune defense, they can also play a detrimental role in inflammatory conditions and have been found to have a pro-metastatic role in the spread of cancer cells. Here, we explore ways to temporarily suppress these detrimental activities. We first examined the possibility of using siRNA and antisense oligonucleotides (ASOs) for transient knockdown of the human and mouse C5a receptor, an important chemoattractant receptor involved in neutrophil-mediated injury that is associated with myocardial infarction, sepsis, and neurodegenerative diseases. We found that siRNAs and ASOs transfected into cultured cell lines can eliminate 70-90% of C5a receptor mRNA and protein within 72 h of administration, a clinically relevant time frame after a cardiovascular event. Targeted drug delivery to specific cells or tissues of interest in a mammalian host, however, remains a major challenge. Here, using phage display technology, we have identified peptides that bind specifically to CD177, a neutrophil-specific surface molecule. We have attached these peptides to fluorescent, lipid-based nanoparticles and confirmed targeting and delivery to cultured cells ectopically presenting either human or mouse CD177. In addition, we have shown peptide-nanoparticle binding specifically to neutrophils in human and mouse blood. We anticipate that these or related tagged nanoparticles may be therapeutically useful for delivery of siRNAs or ASOs to neutrophils for transient knockdown of pro-inflammatory proteins such as the C5a receptor.

Modular Self-Assembly of Protein Cage Lattices for Multistep Catalysis.

The assembly of individual molecules into hierarchical structures is a promising strategy for developing three-dimensional materials with properties arising from interaction between the individual building blocks. Virus capsids are elegant examples of biomolecular nanostructures, which are themselves hierarchically assembled from a limited number of protein subunits. Here, we demonstrate the bio-inspired modular construction of materials with two levels of hierarchy: the formation of catalytically active individual virus-like particles (VLPs) through directed self-assembly of capsid subunits with enzyme encapsulation, and the assembly of these VLP building blocks into three-dimensional arrays. The structure of the assembled arrays was successfully altered from an amorphous aggregate to an ordered structure, with a face-centered cubic lattice, by modifying the exterior surface of the VLP without changing its overall morphology, to modulate interparticle interactions. The assembly behavior and resultant lattice structure was a consequence of interparticle interaction between exterior surfaces of individual particles and thus independent of the enzyme cargos encapsulated within the VLPs. These superlattice materials, composed of two populations of enzyme-packaged VLP modules, retained the coupled catalytic activity in a two-step reaction for isobutanol synthesis. This study demonstrates a significant step toward the bottom-up fabrication of functional superlattice materials using a self-assembly process across multiple length scales and exhibits properties and function that arise from the interaction between individual building blocks.

Modular interior loading and exterior decoration of a virus-like particle.

Virus-like particles (VLPs) derived from the bacteriophage P22 offer an interesting and malleable platform for encapsulation and multivalent presentation of cargo molecules. The packaging of cargo in P22 VLP is typically achieved through genetically enabled directed in vivo encapsulation. However, this approach does not allow control over the packing density and composition of the encapsulated cargos. Here, we have adopted an in vitro assembly approach to gain control over cargo packaging in P22. The packaging was controlled by closely regulating the stoichiometric ratio of cargo-fused-scaffold protein and wild-type scaffold protein during the in vitro assembly. In a "one-pot assembly reaction" coat protein subunits were incubated with varied ratios of wild-type scaffold protein and cargo-fused-scaffold protein, which resulted in the encapsulation of both components in a co-assembled capsid. These experiments demonstrate that an input stoichiometry can be used to achieve controlled packaging of multiple cargos within the VLP. The porous nature of P22 allows the escape and re-entry of wild-type scaffold protein from the assembled capsid but scaffold protein fused to a protein-cargo cannot traverse the capsid shell due to the size of the cargo. This has allowed us to control and alter the packing density by selectively releasing wild-type scaffold protein from the co-assembled capsids. We have demonstrated these concepts in the P22 system using an encapsulated streptavidin protein and have shown its highly selective interaction with biotin or biotin derivatives. Additionally, this system can be used to encapsulate small molecules coupled to biotin, or display large proteins, that cannot enter the capsid and thus remain available for the multivalent display on the exterior of the capsid when attached to a flexible biotinylated linker. Thus, we have developed a P22 system with controlled protein cargo composition and packing density, to which both small and large molecules can be attached at high copy number on the interior or exterior of the capsid.

Programmed Self-Assembly of an Active P22-Cas9 Nanocarrier System.

Clustered Regularly Interspaced Short Palindromic Repeats (CRISPR) RNA-guided endonucleases are powerful new tools for targeted genome engineering. These nucleases provide an efficient and precise method for manipulating eukaryotic genomes; however, delivery of these reagents to specific cell-types remains challenging. Virus-like particles (VLPs) derived from bacteriophage P22, are robust supramolecular protein cage structures with demonstrated utility for cell type-specific delivery of encapsulated cargos. Here, we genetically fuse Cas9 to a truncated form of the P22 scaffold protein, which acts as a template for capsid assembly as well as a specific encapsulation signal for Cas9. Our results indicate that Cas9 and a single-guide RNA are packaged inside the P22 VLP, and activity assays indicate that this RNA-guided endonuclease is functional for sequence-specific cleavage of dsDNA targets. This work demonstrates the potential for developing P22 as a delivery vehicle for cell specific targeting of Cas9.

Self-assembling biomolecular catalysts for hydrogen production.

The chemistry of highly evolved protein-based compartments has inspired the design of new catalytically active materials that self-assemble from biological components. A frontier of this biodesign is the potential to contribute new catalytic systems for the production of sustainable fuels, such as hydrogen. Here, we show the encapsulation and protection of an active hydrogen-producing and oxygen-tolerant [NiFe]-hydrogenase, sequestered within the capsid of the bacteriophage P22 through directed self-assembly. We co-opted Escherichia coli for biomolecular synthesis and assembly of this nanomaterial by expressing and maturing the EcHyd-1 hydrogenase prior to expression of the P22 coat protein, which subsequently self assembles. By probing the infrared spectroscopic signatures and catalytic activity of the engineered material, we demonstrate that the capsid provides stability and protection to the hydrogenase cargo. These results illustrate how combining biological function with directed supramolecular self-assembly can be used to create new materials for sustainable catalysis.

Viruslike Particles Encapsidating Respiratory Syncytial Virus M and M2 Proteins Induce Robust T Cell Responses.

Subunit vaccines provide a safe, focused alternative to conventional vaccines. However, these vaccines often require significant adjuvants and are particularly hard to target toward cytotoxic T lymphocyte (CTL) immunity. Viruslike particles (VLPs) provide biomaterial scaffolds with pathogen-like polyvalent structures making them useful platforms for biomimetic antigen delivery to the immune system. Encapsidation of antigens within VLPs has been shown to enhance antigen availability for CD8 T cell responses. Here, we examine the potential to generate complex responses to multiple subunit antigens localized within the same VLP particle. Two proteins of respiratory syncytial virus (RSV) with well-characterized CD8 T cell responses, the matrix (M) and matrix 2 (M2) proteins, were successfully coencapsidated within the P22 VLP. Upon intranasal administration in mice, the particles stimulated CD8 T cell memory responses against both antigens. In addition, vaccination elicited tissue-resident T cell populations. Upon subsequent RSV challenge, P22-M/M2-treated mice displayed significantly reduced lung viral titers. This demonstrates the utility of the P22 VLP in directing immune responses to multiple encapsidated viral antigens, demonstrating the potential of this technology to facilitate immunity to multiple targets simultaneously.

Symmetry Controlled, Genetic Presentation of Bioactive Proteins on the P22 Virus-like Particle Using an External Decoration Protein.

Viruses use spatial control of constituent proteins as a means of manipulating and evading host immune systems. Similarly, precise spatial control of proteins encapsulated or presented on designed nanoparticles has the potential to biomimetically amplify or shield biological interactions. Previously, we have shown the ability to encapsulate a wide range of guest proteins within the virus-like particle (VLP) from Salmonella typhimurium bacteriophage P22, including antigenic proteins from human pathogens such as influenza. Expanding on this robust encapsulation strategy, we have used the trimeric decoration protein (Dec) from bacteriophage L as a means of controlled exterior presentation on the mature P22 VLP, to which it binds with high affinity. Through genetic fusion to the C-terminus of the Dec protein, either the 17 kDa soluble region of murine CD40L or a minimal peptide designed from the binding region of the "self-marker" CD47 was independently presented on the P22 VLP capsid exterior. Both candidates retained function when presented as a Dec-fusion. Binding of the Dec domain to the P22 capsid was minimally changed across designed constructs, as measured by surface plasmon resonance, demonstrating the broad utility of this presentation strategy. Dec-mediated presentation offers a robust, modular means of decorating the exposed exterior of the P22 capsid in order to further orchestrate responses to internally functionalized VLPs within biological systems.

Regulation of human formyl peptide receptor 1 synthesis: role of single nucleotide polymorphisms, transcription factors, and inflammatory mediators.

The gene encoding the human formyl peptide receptor 1 (FPR1) is heterogeneous, containing numerous single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs). Here, we examine the effect of these SNPs on gene transcription and protein translation. We also identify gene promoter sequences and putative FPR1 transcription factors. To test the effect of codon bias and codon pair bias on FPR1 expression, four FPR1 genetic variants were expressed in human myeloid U937 cells fused to a reporter gene encoding firefly luciferase. No significant differences in luciferase activity were detected, suggesting that the translational regulation and protein stability of FPR1 are modulated by factors other than the SNP codon bias and the variant amino acid properties. Deletion and mutagenesis analysis of the FPR1 promoter showed that a CCAAT box is not required for gene transcription. A -88/41 promoter construct resulted in the strongest transcriptional activity, whereas a -72/41 construct showed large reduction in activity. The region between -88 and -72 contains a consensus binding site for the transcription factor PU.1. Mutagenesis of this site caused significant reduction in reporter gene expression. The PU.1 binding was confirmed in vivo by chromatin immunoprecipitation, and the binding to nucleotides -84 to -76 (TTCCTATTT) was confirmed in vitro by an electrophoretic mobility shift assay. Thus, similar to many other myeloid genes, FPR1 promoter activity requires PU.1. Two single nucleotide polymorphisms at -56 and -54 did not significantly affect FPR1 gene expression, despite differences in binding of transcription factor IRF1 in vitro. Inflammatory mediators such as interferon-γ, tumor necrosis factor-α, and lipopolysaccharide did not increase FPR1 promoter activity in myeloid cells, whereas differentiation induced by DMSO and retinoic acid enhanced the activity. This implies that the expression of FPR1 in myeloid cells is developmentally regulated, and that the differentiated cells are equipped for immediate response to microbial infections.

Agonist-dependent phosphorylation of the formyl peptide receptor is regulated by the membrane proximal region of the cytoplasmic tail.

Formyl peptide receptor (FPR) is a chemoattractant G protein-coupled receptor (GPCR) involved in the innate immune response against bacteria. Receptor activation is terminated by receptor phosphorylation of two serine- and threonine-rich regions located in the distal half of the cytoplasmic tail. In this study we show that introduction of an amino acid with a bulky side chain (leucine or glutamine) adjacent to a single leucine, L320, in the membrane-proximal half of the cytoplasmic tail, significantly enhanced receptor phosphorylation, beta-arrestin1/2 translocation, and receptor endocytosis, without affecting G(i)-mediated ERK1/2 activation and release of intracellular calcium. In addition, the point mutations resulted in diminished susceptibility to trypsin, suggesting a conformation different from that of wild type FPR. Alignment of the FPR sequence with the rhodopsin sequence showed that L320 resides immediately C-terminal of an amphipathic region that in rhodopsin forms helix 8. Deletion of seven amino acids (Delta309-315) from the predicted helix 8 of FPR (G307-S319) caused reduced cell signaling as well as defects in receptor phosphorylation, beta-arrestin1/2 translocation and endocytosis. Thus, the amino acid content in the N-terminal half of the cytoplasmic tail influences the structure and desensitization of FPR.

Role of the carboxyl terminal di-leucine in phosphorylation and internalization of C5a receptor.

The carboxyl tail of G protein-coupled receptors contains motifs that regulate receptor interactions with intracellular partners. Activation of the human neutrophil complement fragment C5a receptor (C5aR) is terminated by phosphorylation of the carboxyl tail followed by receptor internalization. In this study, we demonstrated that bulky hydrophobic residues in the membrane-proximal region of the C5aR carboxyl tail play an important role in proper structure and function of the receptor: Substitution of leucine 319 with alanine (L319A) resulted in receptor retention in the endoplasmic reticulum, whereas a L318A substitution allowed receptor transport to the cell surface, but showed slow internalization upon activation, presumably due to a defect in phosphorylation by both PKC and GRK. Normal agonist-induced activation of ERK1/2 and intracellular calcium release suggested that the L318A mutation did not affect receptor signaling. Binding of GRK2 and PKCbetaII to intracellular loop 3 of C5aR in vitro indicated that mutagenesis of L318 did not affect kinase binding. Limited proteolysis with trypsin revealed a conformational difference between wild type and mutant receptor. Our studies support a model in which the L318/L319 stabilizes an amphipathic helix (Q305-R320) in the membrane-proximal region of C5aR.

Variable responses of formyl peptide receptor haplotypes toward bacterial peptides.

The chemoattractant neutrophil formyl peptide receptor (FPR) binds bacterial and mitochondrial N-formylated peptides, which allows the neutrophils to find the bacterial source and/or site of tissue damage. Certain inflammatory disorders may be due in part to an impaired innate immune system that does not respond to acute bacterial damage in a timely fashion. Because the human FPR is encoded by a large number of different haplotypes arising from ten single-nucleotide polymorphisms, we examined the possibility that some of these haplotypes are functionally distinct. We analyzed the response of three common FPR haplotypes to peptides from Escherichia coli, Mycobacterium avium ssp. paratuberculosis, and human mitochondria. All three haplotypes responded similarly to the E. coli and mitochondrial peptides, whereas one required a higher concentration of the M. avium peptide fMFEDAVAWF for receptor downregulation, receptor signaling, and chemotaxis. This raises the possibility of additional bacterial species differences in functional responses among FPR variants and establishes a precedent with potentially important implications for our innate immune response against bacterial infections. We also investigated whether certain FPR haplotypes are associated with rheumatoid arthritis (RA) by sequencing FPR1 from 148 Caucasian individuals. The results suggested that FPR haplotypes do not significantly contribute toward RA.

Formyl peptide receptor-mediated ERK1/2 activation occurs through G(i) and is not dependent on beta-arrestin1/2.

Formyl peptide receptor (FPR) and C5a receptor (C5aR) are chemoattractant G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) involved in the innate immune response against bacterial infections and tissue injury. Like other GPCRs, they recruit beta-arrestin1/2 to the plasma membrane and activate the extracellular signal-regulated kinases 1 and 2 (ERK1/2). Previous studies with several GPCRs have suggested that beta-arrestins play an important role as signal transducers by scaffolding signaling molecules such as ERK1/2. This function of the beta-arrestins was not discovered until several years after their role in desensitization and endocytosis had been reported. In this study, we investigated the role of the beta-arrestins in the activation of ERK1/2 and receptor endocytosis. We took advantage of previously described mutants of FPR that have defects in G(i) coupling or beta-arrestin recruitment. The results obtained with the mutant FPRs, as well as experiments using an inhibitor of G(i) and cells overexpressing beta-arrestin2, showed that activation of ERK1/2 takes place through G(i) and is not affected by beta-arrestins. However, overexpression of beta-arrestin2 does enhance FPR sequestration from the cell surface, suggesting a role in desensitization, as shown for many other GPCRs. Experiments with CHO C5aR cells showed similar sensitivity to the G(i) inhibitor as CHO FPR cells, suggesting that the predominant activation of ERK1/2 through G protein may be a common characteristic among chemoattractant receptors.

C-terminal tail phosphorylation of N-formyl peptide receptor: differential recognition of two neutrophil chemoattractant receptors by monoclonal antibodies NFPR1 and NFPR2.

The N-formyl peptide receptor (FPR), a G protein-coupled receptor that binds proinflammatory chemoattractant peptides, serves as a model receptor for leukocyte chemotaxis. Recombinant histidine-tagged FPR (rHis-FPR) was purified in lysophosphatidyl glycerol (LPG) by Ni(2+)-NTA agarose chromatography to >95% purity with high yield. MALDI-TOF mass analysis (>36% sequence coverage) and immunoblotting confirmed the identity as FPR. The rHis-FPR served as an immunogen for the production of 2 mAbs, NFPR1 and NFPR2, that epitope map to the FPR C-terminal tail sequences, 305-GQDFRERLI-313 and 337-NSTLPSAEVE-346, respectively. Both mAbs specifically immunoblotted rHis-FPR and recombinant FPR (rFPR) expressed in Chinese hamster ovary cells. NFPR1 also recognized recombinant FPRL1, specifically expressed in mouse L fibroblasts. In human neutrophil membranes, both Abs labeled a 45-75 kDa species (peak M(r) approximately 60 kDa) localized primarily in the plasma membrane with a minor component in the lactoferrin-enriched intracellular fractions, consistent with FPR size and localization. NFPR1 also recognized a band of M(r) approximately 40 kDa localized, in equal proportions to the plasma membrane and lactoferrin-enriched fractions, consistent with FPRL1 size and localization. Only NFPR2 was capable of immunoprecipitation of rFPR in detergent extracts. The recognition of rFPR by NFPR2 is lost after exposure of cellular rFPR to f-Met-Leu-Phe (fMLF) and regained after alkaline phosphatase treatment of rFPR-bearing membranes. In neutrophils, NFPR2 immunofluorescence was lost upon fMLF stimulation. Immunoblotting approximately 60 kDa species, after phosphatase treatment of fMLF-stimulated neutrophil membranes, was also enhanced. We conclude that the region 337-346 of FPR becomes phosphorylated after fMLF activation of rFPR-expressing Chinese hamster ovary cells and neutrophils.

Activation and nuclear translocation of ERK1/2 by the formyl peptide receptor is regulated by G protein and is not dependent on beta-arrestin translocation or receptor endocytosis.

G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) transmit diverse cellular signals in response to a large number of stimuli such as chemoattractants, lipids, neurotransmitters, odorants and light. The classical signaling pathway is through heterotrimeric G proteins, but GPCRs can also transmit signals through mechanisms that are not dependent on G proteins. In mammalian cells, the key component for this type of signaling is the family of scaffolding molecules called beta-arrestins. They can function as scaffolds for activation of mitogen-activated protein kinases, including extracellular signal-regulated kinases 1 and 2 (ERK1/2). In this study we examined the role of G protein and beta-arrestin in formyl peptide receptor (FPR)-mediated activation of chemotaxis, receptor endocytosis and ERK1/2 activation using wild type and mutant receptors. Our findings suggest that, unlike certain other GPCRs that can activate ERK1/2 without the involvement of G protein, FPR requires signaling through a G protein-mediated pathway. Previous observations have shown that ERK1/2, activated through G protein, translocates to the nucleus where it stimulates transcription factors. In contrast, the scaffolding protein beta-arrestin retains the activated ERK1/2 in the cytoplasm to allow phosphorylation of cytoplasmic targets. Our experimental data show that both wild-type FPR and a mutant FPR, defective in beta-arrestin binding, induce nuclear translocation of activated ERK1/2 with similar ligand concentration dependence as seen for activation of cytosolic ERK1/2. We propose that FPR-mediated activation of ERK1/2 takes place primarily through G protein and is physiologically important to ensure transcriptional activation of myeloid immunomodulators, such as cytokines.