Intimate Partner Violence Screening and Intervention: The American College of Preventive Medicine Position Statement.

The purpose of this paper is to produce a position statement on intimate partner violence (IPV), a major sociomedical problem with recently updated evidence, systematic reviews, and U.S. Preventive Services Task Force guidelines. This position statement is a nonsystematic, rapid literature review on IPV incidence and prevalence, health consequences, diagnosis and intervention, domestic violence laws, current screening recommendations, barriers to screening, and interventions, focusing on women of childbearing age (15-45 years). The American College of Preventive Medicine (ACPM) recommends an integrated system of care approach to IPV for screening, identification, intervention, and ongoing clinical support. ACPM only recommends screening that is linked to ongoing clinical support for those at risk. ACPM recommends greater training of clinicians in IPV screening and interventions and offers health systems and research recommendations.

Pregnancy-related cardiovascular deaths in California: beyond peripartum cardiomyopathy.

OBJECTIVE: Maternal mortality rates rose markedly from 2002 to 2006 in California, prompting an in-depth maternal mortality review in a state that comprises one twelfth of the US birth cohort. Cardiovascular disease has emerged as the leading cause of pregnancy-related death in the United States. The primary aim of this analysis was to describe the incidence and type of cardiovascular disease as a cause of pregnancy-related mortality in California. The secondary aims were to describe racial/ethnic and socioeconomic disparities, risk factors, birth outcomes, timing of death and diagnosis, and signs and symptoms of cardiovascular disease and identify contributing factors. STUDY DESIGN: The California Pregnancy-Associated Mortality Review retrospectively examined a case series of 64 cardiovascular pregnancy-related deaths from 2002 through 2006. Two cardiologists independently reviewed complete inpatient and outpatient medical records including laboratory, radiology, electrocardiogram, chest X-ray, echocardiograms, and autopsy findings for each cardiovascular death and classified cause of death by type of cardiovascular disease. Demographic data, racial disparities, risk factors, signs and symptoms, timing of diagnosis and death, birth outcomes, and contributing factors were analyzed using bivariate comparisons with noncardiovascular pregnancy-related deaths and population-based data. RESULTS: Among 2,741,220 California women who gave birth, 864 died while pregnant or within 1 year of pregnancy; 257 of the deaths were deemed pregnancy related, and of these, 64 (25%) were attributed to cardiovascular disease. There were 42 deaths caused by cardiomyopathy, and the pregnancy-related mortality rate from cardiomyopathy was 1.54 per 100,000 births. Dilated cardiomyopathy existed in 29 cases, of which 15 met the definition of peripartum cardiomyopathy. Women with cardiovascular disease were more likely than women who died from noncardiovascular causes to be African-American (39.1% vs 16.1%; P < .01) and more likely to use illicit substances (23.7% vs 9.4%; P < .01). Thirty-seven percent were obese and 20% had a concomitant diagnosis of hypertension or preeclampsia during pregnancy. Health care decisions in the diagnosis or treatment of cardiovascular disease during and after pregnancy contributed to the fatal outcomes. CONCLUSION: African-American race, substance use, and obesity were risk factors for pregnancy-related cardiovascular disease mortality. Chronic disease prevention and better recognition and response to cardiovascular disease during pregnancy are needed to reduce maternal mortality.

The Feasibility of Tracking Elective Deliveries Prior to 39 Gestational Weeks: Lessons From Three California Projects.

The tracking of elective deliveries (ED) prior to 39 gestational weeks has become a mandatory requirement for all hospitals with ≥1,100 deliveries for accreditation by The Joint Commission (TJC); however, the feasibility and accuracy of monitoring efforts remain problematic for many hospitals. Here, we evaluated the feasibility of three operational approaches to tracking ED. We used mixed methods to evaluate the feasibility of 3 different approaches to tracking ED: (1) using administrative data, (2) using electronic medical record (EMR) data, and (3) using targeted data collection in a county-wide quality improvement (QI) effort. For (1), we analyzed data from the California 2009 linked birth cohort dataset, and calculated hospital rates of ED using TJC technical specifications. For (2), we performed a case study of a project that recruited hospitals to provide EMR data for the TJC measure calculation. For (3), we performed a case study of a project that recruited hospitals to prospectively track elective inductions of labor. For (1), hospital discharge data were insufficient without supplementation from the EMR or birth certificate. For (2), legal and operational issues surrounding data sharing, and non-standardized data elements prohibited hospital participation. For (3), the QI approach successfully established policies and data collection systems yet lacked infrastructure to assure sustainability at a hospital or regional level. In summary, ED tracking required the coordination and support of multiple resources to enable hospitals to satisfactorily report on this measure.

Integrating intimate partner violence assessment and intervention into healthcare in the United States: a systems approach.

The Institute of Medicine, United States Preventive Services Task Force (USPSTF), and national healthcare organizations recommend screening and counseling for intimate partner violence (IPV) within the US healthcare setting. The Affordable Care Act includes screening and brief counseling for IPV as part of required free preventive services for women. Thus, IPV screening and counseling must be implemented safely and effectively throughout the healthcare delivery system. Health professional education is one strategy for increasing screening and counseling in healthcare settings, but studies on improving screening and counseling for other health conditions highlight the critical role of making changes within the healthcare delivery system to drive desired improvements in clinician screening practices and health outcomes. This article outlines a systems approach to the implementation of IPV screening and counseling, with a focus on integrated health and advocacy service delivery to support identification and interventions, use of electronic health record (EHR) tools, and cross-sector partnerships. Practice and policy recommendations include (1) ensuring staff and clinician training in effective, client-centered IPV assessment that connects patients to support and services regardless of disclosure; (2) supporting enhancement of EHRs to prompt appropriate clinical care for IPV and facilitate capturing more detailed and standardized IPV data; and (3) integrating IPV care into quality and meaningful use measures. Research directions include studies across various health settings and populations, development of quality measures and patient-centered outcomes, and tests of multilevel approaches to improve the uptake and consistent implementation of evidence-informed IPV screening and counseling guidelines.

Monitoring childbirth morbidity using hospital discharge data: further development and application of a composite measure.

OBJECTIVE: The purpose of this study was to evaluate the use of a childbirth composite morbidity indicator for monitoring childbirth morbidity at hospital and regional levels in California. STUDY DESIGN: Study data were obtained from the 2005 linked maternal and neonatal discharge dataset for California hospitals. The study population was limited to laboring women with singleton, term (≥37 weeks' gestation), inborn, and live births. Women with and without pregnancy complications were stratified into high- and low-risk groups. The composite outcome was defined as any significant morbidity of the mother or newborn infant during the childbirth admission. Submeasures for maternal and neonatal composite morbidity and for severe maternal morbidity were examined with both aggregate and hospital-level analyses. RESULTS: Of 377,869 eligible deliveries, 120,218 (31.8%) were categorized as high risk and 257,651 (68.2%) were categorized as low risk. High-risk women had higher morbidity rates for all comparisons. The mean childbirth composite morbidity rate was 21% overall: 28% for high-risk women and 18% for low-risk women. For high- and low-risk strata, the rates of maternal complications were 18% and 13%, and the rates of severe maternal morbidity were 1.4% and 0.5%, respectively. There was substantial variation across hospitals for all measures. CONCLUSION: The childbirth composite morbidity rate is designed to report childbirth complication rates that combine maternal and neonatal morbidity. This measure and its submeasures met the criteria for quality indicator evaluation as specified by the Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality and can be used for benchmarking or for monitoring childbirth outcomes at regional levels.

California Pregnancy-Associated Mortality Review: mixed methods approach for improved case identification, cause of death analyses and translation of findings.

After several decades of declining rates, maternal mortality climbed in California from a three-year moving average of 9.4 deaths per 100,000 live births in 1999-2001 to a high of 14.0 deaths per 100,000 live births in 2006-2008 (p < 0.001). The Maternal, Child and Adolescent Health Division of the California Department of Public Health developed a mixed method approach to identify and investigate maternal deaths to inform prevention strategies. This paper describes the methodology of the California Pregnancy-Associated Mortality Review (CA-PAMR) and its advantages for improved surveillance, cause of death analysis, and translation of findings. From 2002 to 2004, 1,598,792 live births occurred in California and 555 women died while pregnant or within one year of pregnancy. A screening algorithm identified cases for review that were likely to be pregnancy-related. Medical records were then abstracted and reviewed by a multidisciplinary committee to determine cause of death, contributing factors, and opportunities for quality improvement. Mixed methods were used to analyze, synthesize and translate Committee recommendations for improved care. Of 211 cases selected for review, 145 deaths were determined to be pregnancy-related. CA-PAMR methods corrected misclassification of cases and more accurately identified the leading causes of death. Cardiovascular disease emerged as the leading cause of pregnancy-related deaths (20%), and African-American women were disproportionately represented among cardiovascular deaths. Overall, the chance to prevent the fatal outcome appeared good or strong in 40% of cases reviewed. The CA-PAMR methodology resulted in additional case finding, improved accuracy of the causes of pregnancy-related deaths, and evidence to guide development of prevention and quality improvement efforts.

Trends in maternal morbidity before and during pregnancy in California.

OBJECTIVES: We examined trends in maternal comorbidities in California. METHODS: We conducted a retrospective cohort study of 1,551,017 California births using state-linked vital statistics and hospital discharge cohort data for 1999, 2002, and 2005. We used International Classification of Diseases, Ninth Revision, Clinical Modification codes to identify the following conditions, some of which were preexisting: maternal hypertension, diabetes, asthma, thyroid disorders, obesity, mental health conditions, substance abuse, and tobacco use. We estimated prevalence rates with hierarchical logistic regression models, adjusting for demographic shifts, and also examined racial/ethnic disparities. RESULTS: The prevalence of these comorbidities increased over time for hospital admissions associated with childbirth, suggesting that pregnant women are getting sicker. Racial/ethnic disparities were also significant. In 2005, maternal hypertension affected more than 10% of all births to non-Hispanic Black mothers; maternal diabetes affected nearly 10% of births to Asian/Pacific Islander mothers (10% and 43% increases, respectively, since 1999). Chronic hypertension, diabetes, obesity, mental health conditions, and tobacco use among Native American women showed the largest increases. CONCLUSIONS: The prevalence of maternal comorbidities before and during pregnancy has risen substantially in California and demonstrates racial/ethnic disparity independent of demographic shifts.

Trending elective preterm deliveries using administrative data.

BACKGROUND: We propose a methodology for identifying and analysing 'elective' preterm births (PTBs) using administrative data, and apply this methodology to California data with the objective of providing a framework to further explore the potential rationales for early delivery. METHODS: Using the California linked birth cohorts for 1999, 2002 and 2005, singleton PTBs were identified using birth certificate gestational age ≥ 24 and <37 weeks. Through a hierarchical scheme that first removed cases with standard or 'hard' indications for early delivery (e.g. severe preeclampsia, placenta previa), cases of 'elective' PTB were identified with coding for medical intervention, that is, elective caesarean or labour induction. We calculated rates of elective PTB, with subanalyses of early (<34 weeks of gestational age) and late PTB (34 to <37 weeks of gestational age) using hierarchical logistic regression models. RESULTS: Of 1 387 565 singleton deliveries, 99 614 (7.2%) were preterm. Elective PTBs increased 27.7% over the 6-year study period, with nearly all cases confined to the late PTB stratum; elective late PTB rates rose from 10.5% to 13.5% of all late PTBs (P < 0.0001). Indications for delivery in this Elective Group ('soft indications') included prior pelvic floor repair, mental health conditions, fetal anomalies, malpresentation and oligohydramnios. Six per cent of patients with a late PTB had a medical intervention with no hard or soft indication for delivery. CONCLUSIONS: Using administrative data, we developed a method for identifying and trending the proportion of PTBs that is 'elective'. This method can be used to explore and monitor potential strategies for the prevention of elective PTB.

The health impact of intimate partner violence.

Research suggests that between 960,000 to 4 million individuals are victims of intimate partner violence (IPV) each year and of these about 85 percent are women. In a recent survey conducted by the Commonwealth Fund, it was estimated that approximately one-third of American women will become a victim of IPV at some point in their life. The literature reports 36 percent to 95 percent of battered women suffer injuries to the face, neck or head. Women who have been abused by a partner report significantly lower self assessments of health, increased disabilities and increased chronic health conditions than non-abused women. When direct costs to the health care system are combined with indirect costs to society, total health care costs of IPV can escalate into the billions. Intimate partner violence erodes the health of patients, consumes healthcare dollars, compromises the health and safety of children and communities, and represents a liability exposure for the healthcare clinician who turns their head. Healthcare providers, especially dental professionals, must gain experience in the diagnosis and management of IPV so that identification occurs earlier and intervention follows established protocols.

Gerontology in the R.T. curriculum.

This study was conducted to determine the extent to which students in U.S. radiologic technology educational programs are being prepared to provide diagnostic and therapeutic procedures for geriatric patients. A total of 442 programs in radiography, nuclear medicine technology, radiation therapy and diagnostic medical sonography were surveyed. Results indicate that most gerontology instruction is limited to modules or units within defined courses, rather than comprehensive gerontology courses related to professional practice. Respondents indicated a perceived need for additional gerontology content in the curricula.